OCN Level 2 IT Applications

Step-by-Step Guides for Portfolio Work // ICT Revision

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Word Processing // Creating Professional Documents

▶ 1. Creating & Formatting Documents

Opening, Creating & Saving Documents

When you open Microsoft Word, you can create a new blank document or choose from a template. Templates are pre-designed documents like letters, CVs, or reports that save you time.

Save vs Save As - Know the Difference

Action	Shortcut	What It Does	When to Use It
Save	Ctrl + S	Saves changes to the current file, keeping the same name and location	Every few minutes while working! Get into the habit.
Save As	F12	Lets you save with a new name, in a new location, or as a different file type	When you want to keep the original AND make a new version

How to: Save a Document for the First Time

Click File on the ribbon (top left)
Click Save As
Choose where to save it (e.g. your folder, OneDrive, USB)
Type a clear file name (e.g. "Letter_to_Council_JSmith" not "Document1")
Check the file type is correct (.docx for Word)
Click Save

Always name files clearly so the assessor can find them. "Document1" or "Untitled" looks unprofessional. Use names like "Task3_MailMerge_Letter" so it is obvious what each file is for.

Page Setup

Before you start typing, set up your page correctly. Go to the Layout tab on the ribbon.

Margins

Margins are the white space around the edges of your page. They stop your text going right to the edge.

Normal margins (2.54 cm all round) work for most documents
Narrow margins give you more space for content
Wide margins are good for documents that will be bound (stapled on one side)
You can set Custom Margins by typing exact measurements

Orientation

Orientation	Shape	Best For
Portrait	Tall and narrow (like a portrait painting)	Letters, essays, reports, most documents
Landscape	Wide and short (like a landscape painting)	Wide tables, certificates, posters, presentations

Paper Size

Most documents use A4 (210mm x 297mm), which is the standard in the UK and Ireland. You might use A5 (half of A4) for booklets.

Font Formatting

Font formatting changes how individual characters look. All font options are on the Home tab.

Feature	What It Does	Shortcut	When to Use
Font type	Changes the style of the letters (e.g. Arial, Times New Roman, Calibri)	-	Choose a clear, readable font. Use no more than 2-3 fonts in one document.
Font size	Changes how big the text is (measured in points, e.g. 12pt)	-	Body text: 11-12pt. Headings: 14-18pt.
Bold	Makes text thicker and heavier	Ctrl + B	Headings, key words, emphasis
Italic	Slants text to the right	Ctrl + I	Book titles, technical terms, gentle emphasis
Underline	Draws a line under text	Ctrl + U	Headings (use sparingly - can look like a hyperlink)
Font colour	Changes the colour of the text	-	Use dark colours on white backgrounds. Red for warnings, etc.

Paragraph Formatting

Paragraph formatting affects whole blocks of text. These options are on the Home tab in the Paragraph group.

Alignment

Alignment	Shortcut	What It Does	Best For
Left align	Ctrl + L	Text lines up on the left, ragged on the right	Most text, letters, everyday documents
Centre align	Ctrl + E	Text is centred on the page	Titles, headings, invitations, posters
Right align	Ctrl + R	Text lines up on the right, ragged on the left	Dates, addresses (at the top of letters)
Justify	Ctrl + J	Text lines up on both left AND right sides	Newspapers, reports, professional documents

Line Spacing

Line spacing is the gap between each line of text. Common options:

1.0 (Single) - lines are close together, saves space
1.15 - Word's default, slightly more open
1.5 - good for readability, often used in assignments
2.0 (Double) - lots of space between lines, used for drafts and proofreading

Indentation

Indentation pushes text in from the left (or right) margin. Use it to:

Start the first line of a paragraph slightly inward (first line indent)
Push a whole block of text in from the margin (e.g. a long quotation)
The Tab key adds a quick indent (usually 1.27 cm)

Styles and Headings

Styles are pre-set combinations of font, size, colour, and spacing. Using styles keeps your document consistent and professional.

How to: Apply a Heading Style

Click on the text you want to make a heading
Go to the Home tab
In the Styles group, click Heading 1 for main headings
Use Heading 2 for sub-headings, Heading 3 for sub-sub-headings
Use Normal for body text

Students often format headings manually (making text big and bold) instead of using heading styles. Styles are better because they keep your document consistent, and they allow Word to generate a Table of Contents automatically.

Create a one-page document with a clear title using Heading 1 style, two sub-sections using Heading 2, body text in 12pt Calibri with 1.5 line spacing, and justified alignment. Set the margins to Normal and orientation to Portrait. Save it with a professional file name.

▶ 2. Working with Text

Copy, Cut, Paste, Undo, Redo

These are the most basic editing tools. Learn the shortcuts - they will save you huge amounts of time.

Action	Shortcut	What It Does
Copy	Ctrl + C	Copies selected text to the clipboard (the original stays where it is)
Cut	Ctrl + X	Removes selected text and puts it on the clipboard (like moving it)
Paste	Ctrl + V	Inserts whatever is on the clipboard at the cursor position
Undo	Ctrl + Z	Takes back the last thing you did (you can press it multiple times)
Redo	Ctrl + Y	Puts back something you just undid
Select All	Ctrl + A	Selects everything in the document

When your booklet asks you to move or copy text, take a screenshot BEFORE and AFTER so the assessor can see what changed.

Find and Replace

Find and Replace lets you search for specific text and optionally swap it for something else. This is very useful for fixing repeated errors.

How to: Find and Replace Text

Press Ctrl + H to open Find and Replace
In the Find what box, type the text you want to find (e.g. "colour")
In the Replace with box, type the replacement (e.g. "color")
Click Find Next to step through one at a time, or Replace All to change every instance
Word will tell you how many replacements were made

Be careful with Replace All - it might change words you did not intend. For example, replacing "he" with "she" would also change "the" to "tshe". Always check your document after using Replace All.

Spell Check and Grammar Check

Word automatically checks your spelling and grammar as you type:

Red wavy underline = possible spelling error
Blue wavy underline = possible grammar error
Right-click the underlined word to see suggestions
Press F7 to run a full spell check on the entire document

Always run a spell check before submitting your work, but remember: spell check will not catch words that are spelled correctly but used wrongly (e.g. "their" vs "there" vs "they're"). You still need to proofread!

Bullets and Numbered Lists

Bullets are used for lists where the order does not matter. Numbered lists are used where the order IS important (like instructions).

How to: Create a Bullet List

Place your cursor where you want the list to start
On the Home tab, click the Bullets button (or Numbering for numbered lists)
Type your first item and press Enter to start the next
Press Enter twice or click the Bullets button again to end the list
Click the dropdown arrow next to Bullets to choose different bullet styles

Inserting Special Characters and Symbols

Sometimes you need characters that are not on your keyboard, like the copyright symbol or accented letters.

How to: Insert a Symbol

Place your cursor where you want the symbol
Go to Insert tab
Click Symbol on the far right of the ribbon
Click More Symbols if the one you need is not shown
Browse or search for your symbol, then click Insert

▶ 3. Tables

Creating Tables

A table organises information into rows and columns. Each box in a table is called a cell.

How to: Insert a Table

Place your cursor where you want the table
Go to Insert tab
Click Table
Drag across the grid to select the number of columns and rows you need (e.g. 3x4 means 3 columns and 4 rows)
Click to insert the table
For larger tables, click Insert Table... and type the exact numbers

Adding and Deleting Rows and Columns

Add a row: Right-click inside the table, choose Insert, then Insert Rows Above or Insert Rows Below
Add a column: Right-click, choose Insert, then Insert Columns to the Left or Insert Columns to the Right
Delete: Right-click, choose Delete Cells, then choose whether to delete the row, column, or just the cell
Quick trick: Place your cursor at the end of the last row and press Tab to add a new row automatically

Merging and Splitting Cells

Merging combines two or more cells into one larger cell. This is useful for creating headings that span across multiple columns.

Splitting divides one cell into two or more smaller cells.

How to: Merge Cells

Select the cells you want to merge (click and drag across them)
Go to the Layout tab (under Table Tools)
Click Merge Cells

Formatting Table Borders and Shading

Select the table (or specific cells)
Go to Table Design tab
Use Borders to change line styles, thickness, and which borders to show
Use Shading to add a background colour to cells (great for header rows)
Try the built-in Table Styles for a quick professional look

Sorting Data in Tables

You can sort table data alphabetically, numerically, or by date.

How to: Sort a Table

Click anywhere inside the table
Go to Layout tab (under Table Tools)
Click Sort
Choose which column to sort by
Choose Ascending (A-Z, smallest first) or Descending (Z-A, largest first)
Tick Header row if your first row contains column headings (so they are not sorted)
Click OK

When you create or format a table for your booklet, take a screenshot showing the finished table. If you merged cells or added shading, point this out with annotation arrows on your screenshot.

If your table columns are different widths and look uneven, select the entire table, go to the Layout tab (under Table Tools), and click Distribute Columns. This makes all columns the same width instantly.

▶ 4. Images & Objects

Inserting Images

How to: Insert an Image

Place your cursor where you want the image
Go to Insert tab
Click Pictures
Choose This Device to insert from your computer, or Online Pictures for web images
Find and select your image, then click Insert

Text Wrapping Options

Text wrapping controls how text flows around an image. This is one of the most important skills for making documents look professional.

Wrapping Style	What It Does	Best For
In Line with Text	Image sits on the line like a giant letter. You cannot move it freely.	Simple documents where you just want the image between paragraphs
Square	Text wraps in a rectangle around the image	Most situations - neat and tidy
Tight	Text wraps closely around the edges of the image	Irregular shapes, images with transparent backgrounds
Behind Text	Image goes behind the text (like a watermark)	Background images, watermarks, decorative elements
In Front of Text	Image covers the text underneath	When you want the image on top of everything

How to: Change Text Wrapping

Click on the image to select it
Look for the small Layout Options icon that appears at the top-right corner of the image
Click it and choose your wrapping style
Alternatively: go to Picture Format tab, click Wrap Text

Resizing, Cropping, Positioning

Resize: Click the image, then drag a corner handle (the small circles at the corners). Always use corner handles to keep the image in proportion. Dragging a side handle will stretch it.
Crop: Click the image, go to Picture Format tab, click Crop. Drag the black handles to cut away parts you do not need.
Position: Once you have changed the text wrapping from "In Line with Text", you can click and drag the image anywhere on the page.

Students often stretch images by dragging from the side instead of the corner. This makes photos look distorted (people look fat or thin). Always drag from a corner handle to keep the original proportions.

Adding Captions

How to: Add a Caption to an Image

Right-click the image
Click Insert Caption
Type your caption text (e.g. "Figure 1: Company Logo")
Choose the label type (Figure, Table, etc.)
Choose the position (above or below the image)
Click OK

Text Boxes and WordArt

A text box is a movable container for text. You can position it anywhere on the page, which is useful for pull quotes, sidebars, or labels.

Insert a text box: Insert tab > Text Box > choose a style or draw your own
WordArt: Insert tab > WordArt > choose a style, then type your text. Good for headings and titles with decorative effects.
Shapes: Insert tab > Shapes > choose a shape. You can type text inside most shapes by right-clicking and choosing "Add Text".

When inserting images for your portfolio, always explain WHY you chose that image and what text wrapping you used. For example: "I set the text wrapping to Square so the text would flow neatly around the company logo."

If your image jumps to the wrong place when you insert it, press Ctrl + Z to undo, then change the text wrapping from "In Line with Text" to "Square" before repositioning. This gives you free control over where the image sits on the page.

▶ 5. Headers, Footers & Page Numbers

What Are Headers and Footers?

A header is text that appears at the top of every page. A footer is text that appears at the bottom of every page. They are useful for showing the document title, author name, date, page numbers, or file path.

How to: Add a Header or Footer

Go to Insert tab
Click Header (or Footer)
Choose a built-in design or click Edit Header for a blank one
Type your text (e.g. document title, your name)
Click Close Header and Footer (or double-click outside the header area)

Page Numbers

How to: Add Page Numbers

Go to Insert tab
Click Page Number
Choose the position: Top of Page, Bottom of Page, or Page Margins
Pick a style (e.g. plain number, "Page X of Y")

Different First Page

Many documents do not show the header/footer on the first page (e.g. a cover page). To do this:

Double-click in the header/footer area to edit it
On the Header & Footer tab, tick Different First Page
The first page will now have its own separate header/footer (which you can leave blank)

Adding the Date or File Path

While editing the header/footer:

Date: Click Date & Time on the Header & Footer tab. Tick "Update automatically" if you want today's date to always show.
File path: Go to Insert > Quick Parts > Field > choose "FileName" (with path option). This is useful for portfolio evidence so the assessor can see exactly where the file is saved.

Adding your name, the date, and the file path to headers/footers is a professional touch that assessors like to see. It also helps them link your printed evidence to your digital files.

▶ 6. Mail Merge

What is Mail Merge?

Mail merge lets you create many personalised documents from a single template. For example, you could write one letter and send it to 100 different people, with each letter showing that person's name and address.

There are three parts to every mail merge:

Main document - the letter, label, or email template
Data source - a table or spreadsheet containing the names, addresses, etc. (each row is one person, each column is a field like FirstName, Surname, Address)
Merge fields - placeholders in the main document that get replaced with data (shown as <<FirstName>>, <<Surname>>, etc.)

When to Use Mail Merge

Personalised letters to many recipients
Printing address labels
Name badges or certificates
Personalised emails
Any document where the content is the same but details change for each person

How to: Complete a Mail Merge (Step by Step)

Create your data source first. Open Excel and create a table with column headings like: Title, FirstName, Surname, Address1, Address2, Town, Postcode. Fill in the data for each person (one person per row). Save and close the file.
Open Word and type your letter. Leave gaps where the personalised data will go.
Go to the Mailings tab.
Click Start Mail Merge and choose the type (Letters, Labels, etc.).
Click Select Recipients > Use an Existing List.
Browse to your Excel file and select it. Choose the correct sheet if asked.
Place your cursor where you want the first piece of data (e.g. where the name should go).
Click Insert Merge Field and choose the field (e.g. FirstName).
Repeat for each field: <<Title>> <<FirstName>> <<Surname>> etc.
Click Preview Results to see how the letter looks with real data. Use the arrows to step through each record.
Click Finish & Merge > choose Edit Individual Documents (to create one big document with all letters) or Print Documents.

Mail merge is a BIG topic in the OCN booklet. Screenshot EVERY step: your data source in Excel, the letter with merge fields showing, the preview with real data, and the final merged result. Annotate each screenshot to explain what you did.

Students often forget to include the field delimiters (<< and >>) or type the field names manually instead of inserting them through the Mailings tab. You MUST use Insert Merge Field so Word links to the data source properly.

Create a formal business letter with a company logo, sender address block, and mail merge fields for 5 recipients. Your data source should include Title, FirstName, Surname, and Address fields. Preview all 5 letters and save the merged result as a PDF.

If your merge fields show <<FirstName>> instead of actual names when you click Preview Results, check that your data source file is still open and saved, and that you selected the correct sheet or table when linking.

▶ 7. Printing & Output

Print Preview

Always check Print Preview before printing. Press Ctrl + P or go to File > Print. The preview shows exactly how your document will look on paper.

Check for:

Text or images cut off at the edges
Awkward page breaks (half a paragraph on one page, half on the next)
Headers and footers displaying correctly
Correct orientation (portrait/landscape)

Page Breaks

A page break forces the text after it to start on a new page. This is much better than pressing Enter lots of times to push text to the next page.

Press Ctrl + Enter to insert a page break
Or go to Insert > Page Break

Pressing Enter many times to move to the next page is a very common bad habit. If you edit the text above, everything shifts and your layout breaks. Always use a proper page break instead.

Printing Options

Option	What It Does
Print All Pages	Prints the entire document
Print Current Page	Prints only the page you are currently on
Custom Print (e.g. "1-3, 7")	Prints specific pages only
Copies	Set the number of copies to print
Print One Sided / Both Sides	Choose duplex (double-sided) printing if your printer supports it

Exporting to PDF

A PDF (Portable Document Format) preserves your document's layout so it looks the same on any computer, even without Word installed.

How to: Save as PDF

Go to File > Save As (or Export)
Choose your save location
In the Save as type dropdown, choose PDF (*.pdf)
Click Save

Some booklet tasks ask you to print your work. Even if you cannot physically print, you can save as PDF as your evidence. Always include a screenshot of the Print Preview to show you know how to use it.

▶ Can I Do This? // Word Processing Self-Assessment

Use this checklist to track your confidence in each word processing skill. Go back and revise any areas where you are unsure.

Word Processing Skills Checklist

I can create, save, and name a document using a clear file name
I can set page orientation, margins, and paper size
I can format text using font type, size, bold, italic, and underline
I can set paragraph alignment (left, centre, right, justify) and line spacing
I can apply heading styles (Heading 1, Heading 2) to structure a document
I can create and format a table with borders, shading, and merged cells
I can insert images and change their text wrapping and size
I can add headers and footers with page numbers, dates, and file paths
I can perform a mail merge from start to finish using an Excel data source
I can use Print Preview and save a document as a PDF
I can use spell check and proofread my document before submitting
I can explain my formatting choices in my portfolio evidence

Spreadsheets // Working with Data in Excel

▶ 1. Spreadsheet Basics

Key Vocabulary

Term	What It Means	Example
Cell	A single box in the spreadsheet where you type data	Cell B3 is in column B, row 3
Row	A horizontal line of cells, labelled with numbers	Row 1, Row 2, Row 3...
Column	A vertical line of cells, labelled with letters	Column A, Column B, Column C...
Worksheet (Sheet)	A single page/tab in a spreadsheet	Sheet1, Sheet2 (tabs at the bottom)
Workbook	The entire Excel file, which can contain multiple worksheets	The .xlsx file you save
Cell reference	The "address" of a cell, made up of its column letter and row number	A1, C5, D12
Range	A group of cells, written as the first cell, a colon, and the last cell	A1:A10 means cells A1 through A10
Active cell	The cell you currently have selected (shown with a green border)	-

Data Types

Every cell contains one type of data:

Data Type	What It Is	Examples	Default Alignment
Text (Labels)	Words, names, descriptions	"January", "Smith", "Total"	Left-aligned
Numbers	Values you can calculate with	42, 3.14, -7	Right-aligned
Dates	Calendar dates (stored as numbers internally)	01/04/2026, 5-Apr-26	Right-aligned
Currency	Money values with a currency symbol	£14.99, €250.00	Right-aligned
Formulas	Calculations that start with an equals sign	=A1+B1, =SUM(A1:A10)	Shows the result, not the formula

Entering and Editing Data

Click a cell and start typing to enter data
Press Enter to confirm and move down, or Tab to confirm and move right
Press Escape to cancel what you were typing
Double-click a cell (or press F2) to edit its contents
Press Delete to clear a cell's contents

Selecting Ranges

Click and drag to select a range of cells
Click a column letter (e.g. A) to select the entire column
Click a row number (e.g. 3) to select the entire row
Ctrl + Click to select multiple non-adjacent cells
Shift + Click to select a range from the current cell to the clicked cell

▶ 2. Formatting

Number Formats

Number formatting changes how a number LOOKS without changing its actual value. For example, the number 0.15 can be displayed as 15%, £0.15, or 0.2 depending on the format.

Format	What It Does	Example: 1234.5 becomes...
General	Default - no special formatting	1234.5
Number	Fixed decimal places	1234.50 (2 decimal places)
Currency	Adds a currency symbol and 2 decimal places	£1,234.50
Percentage	Multiplies by 100 and adds %	123450.00% (only use on decimals like 0.75)
Date	Displays as a date	Various formats (DD/MM/YYYY, etc.)
Comma Style	Adds thousand separators	1,234.50

How to: Format Numbers

Select the cells you want to format
On the Home tab, find the Number group
Use the dropdown to choose a format (General, Number, Currency, etc.)
Use the Increase Decimal / Decrease Decimal buttons to adjust decimal places
For more options, click the small arrow at the bottom-right of the Number group to open Format Cells

Cell Formatting

Borders: Home tab > Borders dropdown. Choose which borders to show (all borders, outside borders, etc.)
Shading (fill colour): Home tab > Fill Color (paint bucket icon). Useful for highlighting header rows.
Font: Same as Word - change font type, size, bold, italic, colour
Alignment: Left, centre, right, plus top/middle/bottom vertical alignment

Column Width and Row Height

Manual: Hover over the border between two column letters (e.g. between A and B) until you see a double-headed arrow. Click and drag.
AutoFit: Double-click that same border to automatically fit the column to its widest content
Right-click a column header and choose Column Width to set an exact number

Conditional Formatting

Conditional formatting automatically changes how cells look based on their values. For example, you could make all values below 40 appear in red (to highlight failing grades).

How to: Apply Conditional Formatting

Select the cells you want to format
Go to Home tab > Conditional Formatting
Choose Highlight Cells Rules for simple rules:
- Greater Than... (e.g. highlight values over 100)
- Less Than... (e.g. highlight values under 40)
- Between... (e.g. highlight values between 50 and 70)
- Equal To... (e.g. highlight cells containing "Yes")
Set your value and choose a colour scheme
Click OK

Wrapping Text and Merging Cells

Wrap Text: Makes long text display on multiple lines within the cell instead of overflowing. Home tab > Wrap Text.
Merge & Centre: Combines multiple cells into one and centres the text. Home tab > Merge & Centre. Commonly used for titles that span across several columns.

Be careful with Merge & Centre - it can cause problems with sorting and formulas later. Only use it for headings, not for data cells.

▶ 3. Formulas & Functions

What is a Formula?

A formula is a calculation in a cell. Every formula MUST start with an equals sign (=). Without the equals sign, Excel treats it as text.

Basic Arithmetic

Operator	Meaning	Example	Result (if A1=10, B1=3)
+	Add	=A1+B1	13
-	Subtract	=A1-B1	7
*	Multiply	=A1*B1	30
/	Divide	=A1/B1	3.33...

Common Functions

A function is a ready-made formula for common calculations. The format is always: =FUNCTIONNAME(range)

Function	What It Does	Example	Plain English
=SUM()	Adds up all values in a range	=SUM(A1:A10)	"Add up everything from A1 to A10"
=AVERAGE()	Calculates the mean average	=AVERAGE(B2:B20)	"Find the average of B2 to B20"
=MAX()	Finds the highest value	=MAX(C1:C50)	"What is the biggest number in C1 to C50?"
=MIN()	Finds the lowest value	=MIN(C1:C50)	"What is the smallest number in C1 to C50?"
=COUNT()	Counts cells that contain numbers	=COUNT(A1:A100)	"How many of these cells have numbers in them?"
=COUNTA()	Counts cells that are not empty (any data)	=COUNTA(A1:A100)	"How many of these cells have something in them?"

The IF Function

The IF function checks a condition and returns one value if it is true and a different value if it is false.

The format is: =IF(condition, value_if_true, value_if_false)

Example	What It Means
=IF(B2>=40, "Pass", "Fail")	If B2 is 40 or above, show "Pass". Otherwise, show "Fail".
=IF(C5="Yes", 10, 0)	If C5 contains "Yes", show 10. Otherwise, show 0.
=IF(D3>100, D3*0.1, 0)	If D3 is over 100, calculate 10% of D3. Otherwise, show 0.

How to: Build a Formula Step by Step

Click on the cell where you want the answer to appear
Type = to start the formula
Type the function name (e.g. SUM) and an opening bracket (
Click the first cell of your range, or type its reference (e.g. A1)
Type a colon :
Click the last cell of your range (e.g. A10)
Type a closing bracket )
Press Enter
The cell now shows the result. Click on it and look at the formula bar (above the spreadsheet) to see the formula.

Relative vs Absolute Cell References

This is one of the trickiest concepts in spreadsheets, but it is very important.

Type	Example	What Happens When You Copy the Formula
Relative	A1	The reference CHANGES. If you copy the formula one row down, A1 becomes A2.
Absolute	$A$1	The reference STAYS THE SAME no matter where you copy the formula.
Mixed	$A1 or A$1	The dollar sign locks the part it is in front of. $A1 locks the column. A$1 locks the row.

When do you need absolute references? When one cell in your formula should always refer to the same place, like a tax rate or exchange rate stored in a single cell.

Example: If cell E1 contains the VAT rate (0.2), and you want to calculate VAT for many products, use: =B2*$E$1. The $E$1 will not change when you copy the formula down to B3, B4, B5, etc.

Shortcut: Press F4 while editing a cell reference to cycle through relative, absolute, and mixed references.

Your booklet will almost certainly ask you to show formulas. ALWAYS show BOTH the formula AND the result. Take one screenshot with the result showing, then press Ctrl + ` (the key above Tab) to show all formulas, and take another screenshot.

The most common formula error is forgetting the equals sign. If you type SUM(A1:A10) without the =, Excel treats it as text and you will see the words "SUM(A1:A10)" in the cell instead of a number.

If your formula shows #REF!, you have probably deleted a cell or column that the formula was referencing. Press Ctrl + Z to undo, then check which cells the formula needs before making changes. If it shows #VALUE!, check that you are not trying to do maths on a cell that contains text.

Create a budget spreadsheet with income and expenses for one month. Use SUM to total each category, a formula to calculate the balance (income minus expenses), and conditional formatting to highlight any expense that exceeds its budget limit in red.

▶ 4. Charts & Graphs

Choosing the Right Chart Type

Chart Type	Best For	Example
Column Chart	Comparing values across categories	Sales by month, pupils in each class
Bar Chart	Same as column but horizontal - good when category labels are long	Favourite subjects, countries by population
Pie Chart	Showing parts of a whole (percentages)	Budget breakdown, market share, survey results
Line Chart	Showing trends over time	Temperature over a year, sales growth, website visitors per day

How to: Create a Chart

Select the data you want to chart (include the headings)
Go to Insert tab
In the Charts group, click the chart type you want (Column, Pie, Line, etc.)
Choose a specific style from the dropdown
The chart appears on your worksheet

Chart Elements

A good chart needs these elements. Click the + icon next to the chart to add or remove them:

Element	What It Is	Why It Matters
Chart Title	A heading for the chart	Tells the reader what the chart is about
Axis Labels	Labels for the X axis (horizontal) and Y axis (vertical)	Tells the reader what each axis represents
Legend	A key showing what each colour/series represents	Essential when you have multiple data series
Data Labels	Numbers shown on each bar/slice	Makes exact values easy to read
Gridlines	Lines across the chart to help read values	Helps the reader estimate values from the axis

Formatting Charts

Double-click any element to format it (change colours, fonts, borders)
Click the chart, then use the Chart Design tab to change the overall style or colours
Right-click a data series and choose Format Data Series for detailed options
Click the chart and drag the corner handles to resize it

Moving Charts to Their Own Sheet

How to: Move a Chart to a New Sheet

Click the chart to select it
Go to Chart Design tab
Click Move Chart
Choose New sheet and give it a name
Click OK

Label EVERYTHING on your charts - title, both axes, legend. In your booklet, always explain WHY you chose that chart type. For example: "I used a pie chart because I wanted to show what percentage of the total budget each category represented."

Using a pie chart when you should use a column chart. Pie charts are ONLY for showing parts of one whole. If you are comparing separate categories (like sales in different months), use a column chart.

If your chart does not show the right data or the axes are swapped, click the chart and go to Chart Design > Select Data. Check that the correct cell range is highlighted. You can also click Switch Row/Column to swap the axes around.

▶ 5. Sorting & Filtering

Sorting Data

Sorting rearranges your data in a particular order. You can sort alphabetically (A-Z), numerically (smallest to largest), or by date.

Sort Order	Also Called	Example
Ascending	A to Z, Smallest to Largest, Oldest to Newest	Adams, Brown, Clark, Davies
Descending	Z to A, Largest to Smallest, Newest to Oldest	Davies, Clark, Brown, Adams

How to: Sort Data

Click anywhere in the column you want to sort by
Go to Data tab
Click A-Z for ascending or Z-A for descending
For multiple levels: click Sort, then add levels (e.g. sort by Surname first, then by FirstName)

AutoFilter

Filtering hides rows that do not match your criteria, showing only the data you want to see. The hidden data is not deleted - it is just temporarily hidden.

How to: Use AutoFilter

Click anywhere in your data
Go to Data tab > click Filter
Small dropdown arrows appear on each column heading
Click a dropdown arrow on the column you want to filter
Untick Select All, then tick only the values you want to see
Click OK - only matching rows will be shown
For number/date filters, choose Number Filters or Date Filters for options like "Greater Than", "Between", etc.

Removing Filters

To clear one filter: click the dropdown on that column and choose Clear Filter
To remove all filters: go to Data tab and click Filter again to toggle it off
A filtered column shows a funnel icon instead of the normal dropdown arrow

When sorting or filtering, always show BEFORE and AFTER screenshots. The "before" shows the original data, and the "after" shows the sorted/filtered result. Annotate to explain what you sorted by and why.

Create a class marks spreadsheet with columns for Name, Subject, and Score. Enter at least 10 rows of data. Sort the data by Score in descending order, then use a filter to show only Maths results. Take before and after screenshots for your portfolio.

▶ 6. Printing Spreadsheets

Setting Print Area

Unlike Word, spreadsheets do not always print nicely by default. You often need to set up the print area.

How to: Set a Print Area

Select the cells you want to print
Go to Page Layout tab
Click Print Area > Set Print Area
Now only the selected area will print
To clear it: Print Area > Clear Print Area

Page Setup

Orientation: Page Layout tab > Orientation. Use Landscape for wide spreadsheets with many columns.
Scaling: Page Layout tab > Scale to Fit group. Change Width to "1 page" to squeeze everything onto one page wide. Be careful - too much scaling makes text unreadable.
Margins: Page Layout tab > Margins. Use Narrow margins to fit more data.

Print Titles (Repeating Headers)

If your data runs to multiple pages, the column headings only appear on the first page by default. Print Titles repeats them on every page.

How to: Repeat Header Rows on Every Page

Go to Page Layout tab
Click Print Titles
In Rows to repeat at top, click the row selector for your header row (e.g. $1:$1)
Click OK

Gridlines and Headings in Print

By default, gridlines do NOT print (even though you see them on screen)
To print gridlines: Page Layout tab > tick Print under Gridlines
To print row/column headings (1, 2, 3... A, B, C...): tick Print under Headings

Showing Formulas

Press Ctrl + ` (the backtick key, above Tab) to toggle between showing results and showing formulas. This is essential for your portfolio evidence.

For spreadsheet evidence, you almost always need TWO printouts: one showing the results (normal view) and one showing the formulas (press Ctrl+`). Make sure both are clearly labelled.

▶ Can I Do This? // Spreadsheets Self-Assessment

Use this checklist to track your confidence in each spreadsheet skill. Go back and revise any areas where you are unsure.

Spreadsheets Skills Checklist

I can create a spreadsheet and enter data into cells, rows, and columns
I can format cells with number types, borders, shading, and alignment
I can use Merge and Centre for headings appropriately
I can write formulas using SUM, AVERAGE, MAX, MIN, and COUNT
I can use the IF function to test a condition and show different results
I can explain the difference between relative and absolute cell references
I can apply conditional formatting to highlight cells based on rules
I can create a chart, choose the correct type, and add title, axis labels, and a legend
I can sort data in ascending or descending order
I can apply filters to display only the data I need
I can set a print area and show formulas using Ctrl + backtick
I can explain why I chose a particular chart type in my portfolio

Databases // Working with Microsoft Access

▶ 1. Database Concepts

What is a Database?

A database is an organised collection of data stored electronically. Think of it like a very powerful, structured spreadsheet designed specifically for storing, searching, and managing large amounts of information.

Key Vocabulary

Term	What It Means	Real-World Example
Table	A collection of related data organised in rows and columns (like a spreadsheet)	A "Students" table, a "Products" table
Record	One complete row of data in a table (one "entry")	All the information about ONE student
Field	One column in a table (one category of information)	Surname, DateOfBirth, PhoneNumber
Primary Key	A unique field that identifies each record (no two records can have the same value)	StudentID, ProductCode, OrderNumber

Data Types

Every field in a database must be given a data type that tells Access what kind of data it will store:

Data Type	What It Stores	Example Fields
Short Text	Words, names, codes (up to 255 characters)	FirstName, Surname, Postcode
Long Text (Memo)	Long paragraphs of text	Comments, Description, Notes
Number	Numeric values for calculations	Quantity, Age, Score
Currency	Money values (with currency symbol and 2 decimal places)	Price, Salary, Cost
Date/Time	Dates and/or times	DateOfBirth, OrderDate, StartTime
Yes/No	True/False, Yes/No, On/Off (only two options)	Paid, Active, Vegetarian
AutoNumber	Automatically generates a unique number for each new record (1, 2, 3...)	StudentID, OrderID (ideal for primary keys)

Why Primary Keys Matter

The primary key ensures that every record is unique. Without it, you could have duplicate records and no way to tell them apart. For example, two students called "John Smith" - the primary key (StudentID) makes them unique.

Every table should have a primary key
The primary key must be unique (no duplicates)
The primary key must not be blank (not null)
AutoNumber is the easiest choice for a primary key because Access generates it automatically

Planning a Database

Before you create anything in Access, plan your database on paper:

What tables do you need? (What categories of things are you storing?)
What fields does each table need? (What information do you need about each thing?)
What data type should each field be?
Which field will be the primary key?

Show your planning work in your portfolio. Draw a simple table on paper or in Word showing your field names, data types, and which field is the primary key. This demonstrates that you planned before building.

▶ 2. Creating a Database

Creating a New Database

How to: Create a New Database in Access

Open Microsoft Access
Click Blank database
Type a clear file name (e.g. "SchoolRecords" or "LibraryDatabase")
Choose where to save it
Click Create
Access opens with a blank table called "Table1"

Creating Tables in Design View

Design View is the professional way to create a table. It gives you full control over field names, data types, and properties.

How to: Create a Table in Design View

Go to Create tab
Click Table Design
In the Field Name column, type the name of your first field (e.g. StudentID)
In the Data Type column, choose the correct data type from the dropdown
Optionally add a Description to explain what the field is for
Repeat for each field
To set the primary key: click on the field you want as primary key, then click the Primary Key button on the ribbon (it looks like a key icon)
Press Ctrl + S to save. Give the table a meaningful name (e.g. "tblStudents")

Always use Design View to create your tables, not Datasheet View. Design View shows that you understand data types and field properties. Screenshot your Design View as evidence.

Field Properties

When you click on a field in Design View, the bottom section shows its Field Properties. These control how the field behaves:

Property	What It Does	Example
Field Size	Maximum number of characters allowed (for text) or number type (for numbers)	Set Postcode to 8 characters (no UK postcode is longer)
Format	How the data is displayed	Date format: DD/MM/YYYY. Currency: shows pound sign.
Input Mask	A template that controls what can be typed (like a pattern)	Phone number: 00000 000000 (forces correct format)
Default Value	A value that is automatically entered if the user leaves the field blank	Country field defaults to "United Kingdom"
Required	Whether the field must be filled in (Yes/No)	Set Surname to Required: Yes (you must always have a name)
Validation Rule	A rule that data must follow to be accepted	See the next topic on validation

Students sometimes use "Datasheet View" (which looks like a spreadsheet) instead of "Design View" to build tables. While it works, you miss out on setting data types and properties properly. The booklet expects Design View.

▶ 3. Data Entry & Validation

Entering Records

To enter data, switch to Datasheet View (Home tab > View > Datasheet View). Click in the first empty row and start typing. Press Tab to move to the next field.

Validation Rules

Validation is a way of checking that data entered is sensible and follows the rules you set. It does NOT check that data is correct (someone could still type the wrong name), but it stops obviously wrong data.

Validation Rule	What It Means	Use For
>0	Must be greater than 0	Prices, quantities (cannot be zero or negative)
>=1 And <=100	Must be between 1 and 100 (inclusive)	Percentages, scores, marks
<Date()	Must be before today's date	Date of birth (cannot be in the future)
"M" Or "F"	Must be either M or F	Gender field
Like "BT*"	Must start with "BT"	Northern Ireland postcodes
Between 1000 And 9999	Must be a 4-digit number	PIN codes, year fields

Validation Text

Validation text is the error message that appears when someone enters invalid data. Always write a helpful message that tells the user what they did wrong and what they should enter instead.

Example: If the validation rule is >=1 And <=100, the validation text could be: "Please enter a score between 1 and 100."

How to: Set a Validation Rule

Open the table in Design View
Click on the field you want to validate
In the Field Properties section at the bottom, find Validation Rule
Type your rule (e.g. >=0 And <=100)
In the Validation Text row below, type a helpful error message
Save the table

Input Masks

An input mask provides a template so users know exactly what format to type in. Characters in the mask have special meanings:

Character	Meaning
0	A digit (0-9) must be entered
9	A digit or space (optional)
L	A letter (A-Z) must be entered
?	A letter (optional)
&	Any character must be entered

Example: An input mask for a UK phone number could be: 00000\ 000000 (5 digits, space, 6 digits)

When demonstrating validation, you need to show TWO things: (1) the validation rejecting BAD data (screenshot of the error message), and (2) the validation accepting GOOD data (screenshot of the record being saved successfully). Both are needed for full marks.

Setting validation rules but not setting validation text. Without validation text, the user gets a confusing default error message. Always write a clear, helpful error message.

If your validation rule is not working and Access accepts invalid data, check that you typed the rule in the Validation Rule row (not the Validation Text row). Also make sure the data type of the field matches your rule - a text field will not work with numeric comparisons like >0.

▶ 4. Forms

What Are Forms and Why Use Them?

A form is a user-friendly screen for entering and viewing data. Instead of looking at a spreadsheet-like table, the user sees a nicely designed form with one record at a time.

Benefits of forms:

Easier and friendlier for people who are not database experts
Can include labels, instructions, and drop-down lists to help users
Can hide fields that users should not edit (like the primary key)
Reduce data entry errors
Look more professional

How to: Create a Form Using the Form Wizard

Go to Create tab
Click Form Wizard
Choose the table you want the form to be based on
Select which fields to include (use the > button to add fields, >> to add all)
Click Next
Choose a layout: Columnar (one record, labels on left) is most common
Click Next, give the form a name, and click Finish

Customising Form Layout

To customise your form, switch to Design View or Layout View:

Layout View: See the form with real data and make changes at the same time. Good for quick adjustments.
Design View: Full control over every element. Better for detailed customisation.

Things You Can Customise

Move and resize text boxes and labels by clicking and dragging
Change fonts, colours, and backgrounds
Add a title/heading at the top of the form
Add a company logo or image
Change text boxes to combo boxes (drop-down lists) so users can pick from a list instead of typing
Add buttons for navigation (Next Record, Previous Record, etc.)

Screenshot both the Design View of your form (showing how you built it) and the Form View (showing how it looks to the user with data in it). Annotate to point out any combo boxes, formatting, or special features you added.

▶ 5. Queries

What is a Query?

A query asks the database a question. It searches through the data and returns only the records that match your criteria. For example: "Show me all students who scored more than 80" or "List all orders placed in March".

How to: Create a Query in Design View

Go to Create tab
Click Query Design
In the Show Table dialog, double-click the table(s) you want to query, then click Close
The table appears at the top. Double-click each field you want in your results to add it to the grid at the bottom.
In the Criteria row, type your search criteria under the relevant field
Click Run (the red exclamation mark) to see the results

Setting Criteria

Criteria	Meaning	Example
="Smith"	Exactly equals "Smith"	Find all people with surname Smith
>50	Greater than 50	Scores above 50
<100	Less than 100	Prices under 100
>=40	Greater than or equal to 40	Pass marks (40 and above)
<=10	Less than or equal to 10	Items with 10 or fewer in stock
<>"Pending"	Not equal to "Pending"	All orders that are NOT pending

AND / OR Criteria

AND: Put criteria on the SAME row in the grid. Both conditions must be true. Example: Score >50 AND Subject = "Maths" means you need BOTH to be true.
OR: Put criteria on DIFFERENT rows (the "or" row below the criteria row). Either condition can be true. Example: Subject = "Maths" OR Subject = "English" means either is fine.

Wildcards

Wildcards are special characters that stand in for unknown characters:

Wildcard	What It Does	Example	Would Match
*	Stands for any number of characters	Like "Mc*"	McDonald, McBride, McCarthy
?	Stands for exactly one character	Like "Sm?th"	Smith, Smyth

Sorting Query Results

In the query grid, there is a Sort row. Click it and choose Ascending or Descending to sort the results by that field.

Calculated Fields

You can create new fields in a query that calculate values from existing fields.

Example: To calculate the total cost (quantity x price), in an empty column in the query grid, type:

TotalCost: [Quantity]*[Price]

The name before the colon becomes the column heading. The part after the colon is the calculation using field names in square brackets.

For every query, show TWO screenshots: (1) the Design View showing your criteria, and (2) the Datasheet View showing the results. Annotate the Design View to explain what each criterion does.

Students forget to use the "or" row for OR criteria, putting both conditions on the same line (which makes them AND criteria). Remember: same row = AND, different rows = OR.

Design a simple library database with a Books table (BookID, Title, Author, Genre, DateBorrowed, DueDate) and a Members table (MemberID, Name, Email). Create a query to find overdue books by setting the DueDate criteria to < today's date. Add a calculated field showing how many days overdue each book is.

If your query returns no results when you expect some, check your criteria carefully. A common cause is typing text criteria without quotes, or using the wrong comparison operator. Also check that the field names in your criteria row match the actual field names exactly.

▶ 6. Reports

What Are Reports?

A report is a formatted, printable summary of your data. While tables and queries show raw data on screen, reports are designed to be printed or exported as a PDF.

Use reports when you need to:

Print data in a professional, organised layout
Group data by category (e.g. students grouped by class)
Add totals, averages, or counts
Present information to someone who does not use the database

How to: Create a Report Using the Report Wizard

Go to Create tab
Click Report Wizard
Choose the table or query to base the report on
Select the fields you want to include
Click Next
Grouping: Choose a field to group by (e.g. group students by Year Group). Click Next.
Sorting: Choose how to sort the records within each group (e.g. sort by Surname ascending). You can also click Summary Options to add Sum, Average, Count, etc. Click Next.
Choose a layout (Stepped or Block) and orientation (Portrait or Landscape). Click Next.
Give the report a name and click Finish

Customising Reports

Switch to Design View or Layout View to make changes
Add a title, date, and page numbers
Resize columns if data is cut off
Change fonts, colours, and alignment
Add calculated fields (e.g. totals in the report footer)

Adding Calculated Fields to Reports

In Design View, you can add text boxes with expressions like:

=Count(*) - counts the number of records
=Sum([Price]) - adds up all values in the Price field
=Avg([Score]) - calculates the average score
=Now() - shows the current date and time

When showing report evidence, include a screenshot of the report in Print Preview (how it will actually look when printed) and a screenshot of Design View to show how you built it.

▶ Can I Do This? // Databases Self-Assessment

Use this checklist to track your confidence in each database skill. Go back and revise any areas where you are unsure.

Databases Skills Checklist

I can explain what a database is and why it is used instead of a spreadsheet
I can define tables with appropriate field names and data types
I can set a primary key for each table
I can add validation rules and input masks to fields
I can enter records into a table and edit existing data
I can create a form for easy data entry
I can create a query with criteria using comparison operators
I can use AND and OR criteria in a query
I can sort query results and add calculated fields
I can create a report based on a table or query
I can add grouping, sorting, and summary calculations to a report
I can explain my database design choices in my portfolio

Presentations // Creating Effective Slideshows

▶ 1. Creating Presentations

Getting Started

When you open PowerPoint, you can start with a Blank Presentation or choose a theme (a pre-designed look with coordinated colours, fonts, and backgrounds).

Themes and Slide Layouts

A theme gives your entire presentation a consistent, professional look. Go to Design tab to browse and apply themes.

Each slide has a layout that determines where text and content boxes are placed:

Title Slide - for the first slide (title and subtitle)
Title and Content - heading with a content area below (most common)
Two Content - heading with two side-by-side content areas
Blank - empty slide for total freedom
Section Header - for dividing your presentation into sections

How to: Add and Arrange Slides

To add a new slide: click New Slide on the Home tab (or press Ctrl + M)
To change a slide's layout: right-click the slide in the panel on the left, choose Layout
To rearrange slides: click and drag them up or down in the left panel
To delete a slide: right-click it and choose Delete Slide
To duplicate a slide: right-click and choose Duplicate Slide

Slide Views

View	What It Shows	Best For
Normal View	One slide at a time with editing tools	Creating and editing slides (your main working view)
Slide Sorter	All slides shown as thumbnails in a grid	Rearranging the order of slides, getting an overview
Slide Show	Full screen presentation mode	Presenting to an audience (press F5 to start from slide 1)
Reading View	Like Slide Show but in a window	Reviewing your presentation before presenting

Master Slide

The Slide Master controls the design of ALL slides. If you change the master, every slide updates. This ensures consistency.

How to: Edit the Slide Master

Go to View tab
Click Slide Master
The top slide in the left panel is the master. Changes here affect ALL slides.
Below it are individual layout masters for each layout type.
Make your changes (e.g. add a logo, change fonts, add a footer)
Click Close Master View when done

Using a consistent theme or master slide shows the assessor you understand design consistency. Mention it in your portfolio: "I used a master slide to ensure all slides had the same fonts, colours, and logo."

▶ 2. Adding Content

Text

Click in a text placeholder and start typing
Keep text short - bullet points, not paragraphs
Use the 6x6 rule: no more than 6 bullet points per slide, no more than 6 words per bullet
Use a large font size (at least 24pt for body text, 36pt+ for titles)

Images, Shapes, and SmartArt

Images: Insert tab > Pictures (same as Word)
Shapes: Insert tab > Shapes. Draw arrows, boxes, circles, stars, etc.
SmartArt: Insert tab > SmartArt. These are diagrams like organisational charts, process flows, cycles, and lists. SmartArt makes information look professional quickly.

How to: Insert SmartArt

Go to Insert tab > SmartArt
Choose a category (List, Process, Cycle, Hierarchy, etc.)
Click a design and click OK
Click in the text areas to type your content
Use the text pane on the left to add/remove items

Tables and Charts

Tables: Insert tab > Table. Choose the size. Good for comparison data.
Charts: Insert tab > Chart. Works just like Excel charts - you enter data in a mini spreadsheet that appears.

Video and Audio

Video: Insert tab > Video > choose from your device or online
Audio: Insert tab > Audio > choose from your device
Use the Playback tab to set when media plays (on click, automatically), loop, and trim

Hyperlinks

A hyperlink is a clickable link that takes you somewhere else during the presentation.

How to: Add a Hyperlink

Select the text or object you want to make clickable
Press Ctrl + K or go to Insert > Link
Choose where the link goes:
- Existing File or Web Page - link to a website or file
- Place in This Document - link to another slide in your presentation
Click OK

Putting too much text on slides is the number one presentation mistake. Slides should support your talk, not replace it. If the audience is reading your slides, they are not listening to you.

▶ 3. Animations & Transitions

Slide Transitions

A transition is the visual effect that plays when you move from one slide to the next (like a fade, wipe, or push).

How to: Add a Transition

Click on the slide you want the transition ON (it plays when entering this slide)
Go to the Transitions tab
Click a transition effect to preview it
Adjust Duration (how long the transition takes)
Optionally add a Sound
Under Advance Slide, choose:
- On Mouse Click - you control when to advance
- After - auto-advance after a set time
Click Apply To All to use the same transition on every slide

Object Animations

Animations make individual objects on a slide appear, move, or disappear. There are four types:

Type	Colour	What It Does	Example
Entrance	Green	Object appears on the slide	Fade In, Fly In, Appear
Emphasis	Yellow	Object is already on screen and draws attention	Pulse, Spin, Grow/Shrink
Exit	Red	Object disappears from the slide	Fade Out, Fly Out, Disappear
Motion Paths	Blue	Object moves along a path you define	Lines, arcs, custom paths

How to: Add an Animation

Click the object you want to animate
Go to the Animations tab
Click an animation effect
To add MULTIPLE animations to one object: click Add Animation (not just clicking a new one, which replaces the first)
Use the Animation Pane (click the button on the Animations tab) to see the order and timing of all animations
Drag animations up/down in the Animation Pane to change the order

Animation Timing

For each animation, you can set:

Start: On Click (you click to trigger it), With Previous (plays at the same time as the previous animation), After Previous (plays automatically after the previous one finishes)
Duration: How long the animation takes
Delay: A pause before the animation starts

Do NOT overdo animations. One or two subtle transitions and entrance animations look professional. Spinning text, bouncing images, and sound effects on every slide look childish. Explain your choices: "I used a Fade entrance for the bullet points so information appeared gradually, keeping the audience focused on one point at a time."

Create a 6-slide presentation about your favourite hobby. Include a title slide, an introduction, at least 3 content slides with images and bullet points, and a summary slide. Add Fade transitions between slides, entrance animations on bullet points, and speaker notes on every slide explaining what you would say.

If an animation plays in the wrong order, open the Animation Pane (Animations tab > Animation Pane). You will see all animations listed in order. Drag them up or down to rearrange, or right-click and choose timing options to adjust when each one starts.

▶ 4. Slide Show Settings & Printing

Running a Slide Show

Action	How
Start from the beginning	F5 or Slide Show tab > From Beginning
Start from current slide	Shift + F5 or Slide Show tab > From Current Slide
Next slide	Click, Enter, Space, or Right Arrow
Previous slide	Backspace or Left Arrow
End the show	Escape
Jump to slide 5	Type 5 then press Enter

Slide Show Setup

Go to Slide Show tab > Set Up Slide Show for options:

Presented by a speaker: Normal presentation (you control it)
Browsed by an individual: Runs in a window, the viewer controls it
Browsed at a kiosk: Full screen, loops continuously (for unattended displays)

Rehearse Timings

Go to Slide Show tab > Rehearse Timings. PowerPoint records how long you spend on each slide, which is useful for automatic presentations.

Speaker Notes

Speaker notes are private notes that only you can see while presenting. The audience sees the slide; you see the slide plus your notes.

Type notes in the Notes pane below the slide in Normal View
Click Notes on the status bar at the bottom if the pane is hidden
When presenting on two screens, use Presenter View to see your notes

Printing Options

Print Option	What It Prints	Best For
Full Page Slides	One slide per page	High-quality printouts, posters
Handouts	Multiple slides per page (2, 3, 4, 6, or 9)	Giving to the audience to follow along or take notes
Notes Pages	One slide per page with speaker notes below	Your own reference while presenting
Outline	Just the text, no graphics	Reviewing content structure

Print your slides as handouts (multiple slides per page) for your portfolio. Also show a screenshot of Normal View with speaker notes visible, and Slide Sorter view to show the overall structure.

▶ Can I Do This? // Presentations Self-Assessment

Use this checklist to track your confidence in each presentation skill. Go back and revise any areas where you are unsure.

Presentations Skills Checklist

I can create a new presentation and choose an appropriate slide layout
I can apply a consistent design theme to all slides
I can add text, images, shapes, and SmartArt to slides
I can insert a table or chart into a slide
I can add hyperlinks to navigate between slides or to external websites
I can add slide transitions and explain why I chose them
I can add entrance, emphasis, and exit animations to objects
I can use the Animation Pane to control animation order and timing
I can add speaker notes to guide my presentation delivery
I can set up a slide show with custom settings (timings, looping)
I can print slides as handouts and notes pages
I can keep slides concise and visually clear, avoiding too much text

Internet & Email // Online Skills & Safety

▶ 1. Using the Internet

Web Browser Basics

A web browser is the software you use to access websites (e.g. Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge, Firefox, Safari).

Feature	What It Does
Address bar	Where you type the URL (web address) of a website, e.g. www.bbc.co.uk
Tabs	Allow you to have multiple web pages open at the same time
Bookmarks/Favourites	Save the addresses of websites you visit often so you can find them quickly
Back/Forward buttons	Navigate between pages you have already visited
Refresh button	Reloads the current page (useful if it has not loaded properly)
History	A list of all websites you have visited recently
Downloads	Where files you have downloaded from the internet are saved

Search Engines & Effective Searching

A search engine (like Google or Bing) helps you find information by searching billions of web pages.

Tips for Better Searches

Use specific keywords, not full sentences ("climate change effects" not "what are the effects of climate change on the environment")
Put exact phrases in quotation marks: "Northern Ireland" finds those exact words together
Use a minus sign to exclude words: jaguar -car (finds the animal, not the car)
Use site: to search within a specific website: site:bbc.co.uk climate change

Boolean Operators

Operator	What It Does	Example
AND	Both terms must appear in results	renewable AND energy (results must mention both)
OR	Either term can appear	laptop OR notebook (results can mention either)
NOT	Excludes results containing that term	apple NOT fruit (finds Apple the company, not the fruit)

Evaluating Websites

Not everything on the internet is true or reliable. Use these questions to evaluate a website:

Check	Questions to Ask
Reliability	Is the information accurate? Can you verify it on other sites? Are sources given?
Bias	Is the site trying to sell something or push a particular viewpoint? Who funds it?
Currency	When was it last updated? Is the information still current and relevant?
Authority	Who wrote it? Are they an expert? Is it a trusted organisation (.gov, .ac.uk, .org)?

Downloading and Saving Content

Save a web page: Ctrl + S or File > Save As
Save an image: Right-click the image > Save image as
Download a file: Click the download link. Check your Downloads folder.
Copy text: Select the text, Ctrl + C, then paste into your document

Copyright and Fair Use

Copyright means that the person who created something (text, images, music, video) owns the rights to it. You cannot simply copy and use other people's work without permission.

Always reference your sources (say where you got information from)
Use Creative Commons images (free to use with attribution)
Do not copy large amounts of text word-for-word - paraphrase (put it in your own words)
Plagiarism means passing off someone else's work as your own - this is a serious offence

When you use information or images from the internet in your booklet work, always note the source (the website URL). This shows good practice and avoids plagiarism issues.

▶ 2. Online Safety

Strong Passwords

A strong password protects your accounts from being hacked. A good password should be:

Long - at least 12 characters (longer is better)
Complex - mix of uppercase, lowercase, numbers, and symbols
Unique - different for every account (do not reuse passwords)
Not guessable - avoid names, birthdays, "password123", dictionary words

Tip: Use a passphrase - a sentence that is easy for you to remember but hard to guess. Example: MyDog$Loves2RunInTheRain!

Phishing and Scam Emails

Phishing is when criminals send fake emails or messages pretending to be from a trusted company (like your bank, Amazon, or Royal Mail) to trick you into giving them your personal information.

How to Spot a Phishing Email

Sender address looks wrong (e.g. support@amaz0n-security.com instead of @amazon.co.uk)
Creates urgency ("Your account will be closed in 24 hours!")
Asks for personal information (passwords, bank details, PINs)
Contains spelling and grammar mistakes
Suspicious links (hover over links to see where they really go)
Generic greeting ("Dear Customer" instead of your name)
Unexpected attachments

Privacy Settings on Social Media

Set your profile to private so only approved friends can see your posts
Regularly check who can see your information
Be selective about friend/follow requests - do not accept strangers
Check what apps have access to your account and remove ones you do not use

What NOT to Share Online

Full home address
Phone number
Date of birth (especially with the year)
School name and uniform
Passwords
Bank details or financial information
Photos that show your location (geotagging)
Holiday dates (burglars look for empty houses)

Malware, Viruses, and Ransomware

Threat	What It Does	How It Spreads
Virus	Attaches itself to files and spreads when files are shared. Can damage or delete data.	Email attachments, USB drives, downloads
Malware	General term for any malicious software (viruses, spyware, trojans, etc.)	Infected websites, fake downloads, email links
Ransomware	Locks your files and demands payment (a ransom) to unlock them	Phishing emails, infected websites
Spyware	Secretly monitors what you do and sends information to criminals	Free software, dodgy websites

How to Protect Yourself

Keep your operating system and software up to date
Use antivirus software and keep it updated
Do not click on suspicious links or download files from untrusted sources
Back up your files regularly (so ransomware cannot hold them hostage)
Use a firewall to block unauthorised access to your computer

▶ 3. Email

Sending, Replying, Forwarding

Action	What It Does	When to Use
New Email	Creates a brand new message	Starting a new conversation
Reply	Sends a response back to the person who emailed you	Answering a question or responding to a message
Reply All	Sends a response to EVERYONE who received the original email	When everyone in the conversation needs to see your response
Forward	Sends someone else's email on to a new person	Sharing information that someone else sent you

CC and BCC

Field	Full Name	What It Does	Example
To	-	The main recipient(s) - the person you are writing to	Your teacher
CC	Carbon Copy	Extra people who should see the email (for information). Everyone can see who is CC'd.	CC your parent on a school email
BCC	Blind Carbon Copy	Extra people who receive the email but other recipients CANNOT see them.	Emailing many people without sharing their addresses with each other

Using "Reply All" when you only mean to reply to one person. This can be embarrassing if you say something meant just for the sender and everyone sees it. Always check whether you need Reply or Reply All.

Attachments

Sending: Click the Attach button (paperclip icon), browse for your file, and select it. Check the file size - most email providers limit attachments to around 25MB.
Receiving: Attachments appear as icons at the top or bottom of the email. Click to preview, or click Download / Save.
Safety: NEVER open attachments from people you do not know. Even from people you know, be cautious if the attachment is unexpected.

Email Etiquette

Professional emails follow certain rules:

Subject line: Always include one. Make it short and descriptive (e.g. "OCN Booklet Question - Task 3" not "Hi")
Greeting: Start with "Dear [Teacher's Name]" or "Hi [Name]" depending on the situation
Body: Keep it clear and concise. Use paragraphs. Be polite.
Sign-off: End with "Kind regards" or "Many thanks" followed by your name
Signature: Set up an email signature with your name and any relevant details
Proofread: Check spelling and grammar before sending
Do NOT: Use text speak (u, r, 2, lol), ALL CAPS (it feels like shouting), or overly casual language in professional emails

Organising Email

Folders/Labels: Create folders to sort emails by project, sender, or topic
Search: Use the search bar to find emails by sender, subject, or content
Address book/Contacts: Save email addresses of people you contact regularly
Distribution lists: A group of email addresses saved under one name, so you can email everyone in the group at once

When taking screenshots of emails for your portfolio, always show professional subject lines and proper greetings. If the task asks you to send an email, compose a real-looking email with a proper subject, greeting, body, and sign-off.

Compose a professional email to a fictitious employer enquiring about work experience. Include a clear subject line, a formal greeting, a well-structured body explaining who you are and what you are requesting, and a professional sign-off. Attach your CV (or a blank document as a placeholder) and CC a teacher's email address.

Desktop Publishing // Professional Publications

▶ 1. DTP Basics

DTP vs Word Processing

Desktop Publishing (DTP) software is designed for creating visually rich documents where layout and design matter most. While word processors focus on text, DTP focuses on the overall visual design.

Feature	Word Processing (Word)	Desktop Publishing (Publisher / InDesign)
Best for	Letters, essays, reports, documents with mostly text	Newsletters, posters, flyers, business cards, brochures
Text handling	Text flows continuously from top to bottom	Text is placed in movable frames/boxes
Layout control	Basic - limited positioning of images and objects	Precise - place anything anywhere on the page
Templates	Some available	Wide range of publication templates

Page Layout Concepts

Columns: Dividing the page into vertical sections (like a newspaper). Common: 2 or 3 columns for newsletters.
Margins: White space around the edges of the page. Consistent margins make a publication look professional.
Guides: Non-printing lines you can drag onto the page to help align objects precisely. They are like invisible rulers.
Grid: An invisible structure of rows and columns that helps you place content consistently.

Master Pages

A master page is a template page that controls elements appearing on every page (like headers, footers, page numbers, logos, background colours). Changes to the master page affect all pages that use it.

This is very similar to the Slide Master in PowerPoint.

Text Frames and Image Frames

Text frame: A box that holds text. You can resize it, move it, and link it to other text frames so text flows from one to the next.
Image frame: A box that holds an image. You can resize and position it independently.
In DTP, EVERYTHING is in a frame. Nothing is typed directly onto the page.

▶ 2. Creating Publications

Common Publication Types

Type	Description	Key Features
Newsletter	Multi-page publication with articles, usually for an organisation	Columns, headings, images, text flowing across pages
Flyer	Single page advertisement or announcement	Eye-catching headlines, large images, call to action
Poster	Large format for display on walls	Bold text, minimal wording, readable from a distance
Business Card	Small card with contact details	Name, title, phone, email, logo, clean layout
Brochure	Folded leaflet with multiple panels	Consistent design across panels, clear information flow

Working with Text Frames

Create a text frame: Use the text frame tool and draw a box on the page
Link text frames: When text does not fit in one frame, you can link it to another frame on a different page or column. The text automatically flows from one to the next. This is called text flow or threading.
Text wrapping: When an image overlaps a text frame, text can wrap around the image (just like in Word).

Working with Images

Import images using Insert > Picture
Always use high-resolution images for print (low-res images look blurry when printed)
Resize proportionally (hold Shift while dragging corners)
Use consistent image sizes and positions for a professional look

Using Layers

Layers work like transparent sheets stacked on top of each other. Objects on higher layers appear in front of objects on lower layers.

Send to Back / Bring to Front: Right-click an object to change its layer order
Background elements go on the bottom layer, text on top

Colour Schemes

Use a consistent colour scheme throughout your publication. Most DTP software lets you set a colour palette. Good practice:

Choose 2-3 main colours plus black/white
Use colours from the organisation's branding if applicable
Make sure there is good contrast between text and background (dark text on light background, or light text on dark background)

▶ 3. Design Principles

Layout and White Space

White space (also called negative space) is the empty area between elements on a page. It is NOT wasted space - it makes your design easier to read and more professional.

Do not cram everything together - leave breathing room
Use consistent spacing between sections
Align elements to create a clean, orderly look
Group related items together and separate unrelated items with space

Font Choice

Type	What It Is	Examples	Best For
Serif	Fonts with small "feet" or lines at the ends of letters	Times New Roman, Georgia, Garamond	Body text in printed documents (the serifs guide the eye along lines of text)
Sans-serif	Fonts without the small lines (clean, modern look)	Arial, Calibri, Helvetica	Headings, posters, screen text, modern designs

Font rules:

Use no more than 2-3 fonts in one publication
A common combination: sans-serif for headings, serif for body text (or vice versa)
Avoid novelty/decorative fonts for body text (hard to read)
Keep font sizes consistent for the same type of content

Colour Theory Basics

Complementary colours: Colours opposite each other on the colour wheel (e.g. blue and orange). They create strong contrast.
Analogous colours: Colours next to each other on the colour wheel (e.g. blue, blue-green, green). They create a harmonious, calm look.
Warm colours (red, orange, yellow) feel energetic and attention-grabbing
Cool colours (blue, green, purple) feel calm and professional
Always ensure text is readable against its background - test by printing!

Target Audience

Your design choices should suit who you are designing for:

Audience	Design Approach
Children	Bright colours, large text, fun fonts, lots of images
Teenagers	Modern, bold, trendy colours, clean layout
Business professionals	Formal, minimal colours, serif fonts, lots of white space
Elderly	Large font size (at least 14pt), high contrast, simple layout

In your portfolio, ALWAYS explain your design choices. Do not just say "I chose blue." Say "I chose blue because the publication is for a professional business audience, and blue conveys trust and professionalism." Explaining WHY is what gets you higher marks.

Using too many fonts, colours, and effects. A cluttered design looks unprofessional. Keep it simple: 2-3 fonts, 2-3 colours, consistent alignment, and plenty of white space.

Design a poster for a school event (concert, sports day, or open evening) using a DTP application. Use at least 3 colours from a complementary colour scheme, include a heading with a text effect, an image, and body text in a readable font. Explain every design choice in a short paragraph underneath.

If your text frame overlaps an image frame and you cannot click the text, right-click the image frame and choose Send to Back (or use Arrange > Send Backward). This moves the image behind the text frame so you can select and edit the text again.

▶ Can I Do This? // Desktop Publishing Self-Assessment

Use this checklist to track your confidence in each DTP and graphics skill. Go back and revise any areas where you are unsure.

Desktop Publishing & Graphics Skills Checklist

I can explain the difference between DTP software and a word processor
I can create a publication using text frames and image frames
I can use a master page to set consistent headers, footers, and backgrounds
I can choose appropriate fonts for headings and body text
I can apply a colour scheme based on colour theory (complementary or analogous)
I can create common publication types (newsletter, poster, leaflet, business card)
I can use alignment, white space, and grids to create a clean layout
I can adjust my design choices based on the target audience
I can explain and justify my design decisions in my portfolio evidence

Portfolio & Evidence Tips // How to Get the Best Marks

▶ 1. How to Build Good Portfolio Evidence

Screenshot Everything

Your booklet evidence needs to PROVE that you did the work. The best way is with screenshots. You need screenshots at three stages:

Stage	What to Screenshot	Why
Before	The starting point - blank document, original data, empty database	Shows what you started with
During	Menus open, dialog boxes, settings you are changing, Design View	Shows the PROCESS and that you know HOW to do things
After	The finished result - completed document, formatted spreadsheet, query results	Shows the final outcome

How to: Take and Use Screenshots

Full screen: Press Print Screen (PrtSc) to capture the entire screen
Active window only: Press Alt + Print Screen to capture just the current window
Snipping Tool / Snip & Sketch: Press Windows + Shift + S to select exactly the area you want
Paste into your document with Ctrl + V
Resize the screenshot so it is large enough to read

Annotate Your Screenshots

Annotating means adding labels, arrows, and explanations to your screenshots. This shows the assessor exactly what they should be looking at.

Use text boxes to add explanations next to your screenshots
Use arrows (Insert > Shapes > Arrow) to point at important features
Use circles or rectangles to highlight specific areas
Write brief explanations like "This shows the SUM formula calculating the total" or "I set the primary key to StudentID"

Explain Your Choices

The difference between a Pass and a Merit/Distinction often comes down to EXPLANATION. Do not just show what you did - explain WHY.

"I chose a pie chart because I wanted to show what percentage of the total each category represented."
"I used conditional formatting to highlight values below 40 in red so failing grades would stand out immediately."
"I set the font to Arial 12pt because it is clear and professional, suitable for a business letter."
"I used validation on the age field (>=0 And <=120) to prevent unrealistic values being entered."

Show Both Views

Many tasks require you to show what is happening "behind the scenes":

Spreadsheets: Show the results AND the formulas (Ctrl + `)
Databases: Show Design View AND Datasheet View / Form View
Queries: Show the Design View (criteria) AND the results
Mail Merge: Show the merge fields AND the preview with real data

Use Consistent File Naming

Name your files clearly and consistently so the assessor (and you) can find everything easily.

Good examples:

Task1_BusinessLetter.docx
Task2_SalesSpreadsheet.xlsx
Task3_StudentDatabase.accdb
Task4_MailMerge_DataSource.xlsx
Task4_MailMerge_Letter.docx

Bad examples: Document1.docx, Untitled.xlsx, New Database.accdb, Copy of Copy of task.docx

Create a folder for each unit or task. Keep all related files together. Include a simple contents list or index page in your portfolio so the assessor can find everything.

▶ 2. Common Portfolio Mistakes to Avoid

The Top Mistakes Students Make

Missing screenshots of key steps. You did the work on screen, but if there is no screenshot, there is no evidence. The assessor cannot give you marks for work they cannot see.

Not explaining your choices. Showing a pie chart is Pass level. Explaining WHY you chose a pie chart, WHY you used those colours, and HOW it helps the reader is Merit/Distinction level.

Poor file organisation. Files scattered everywhere with names like "Document1" and "Untitled". This makes it hard for the assessor to find your work, and it looks unprofessional.

Not testing or validating data. If you set up validation rules in a database, you MUST test them. Show them rejecting bad data AND accepting good data. Same for formulas - show they produce correct results.

Not proofreading final documents. Spelling mistakes, grammar errors, and formatting inconsistencies in your actual documents (not just the portfolio write-up) look careless and lose marks for quality.

Evidence that does not match the task. Read the task carefully. If it asks for a formal business letter, do not submit a casual note. If it asks for 3 queries, do not submit 2. Check off each requirement.

Quality Checklist

Before submitting each task, check:

Have I included screenshots of every key step (before, during, after)?
Have I annotated my screenshots with labels and explanations?
Have I explained WHY I made each choice (chart type, colours, layout, validation)?
Have I shown Design View AND the result where applicable?
Have I spell-checked my actual documents (not just the portfolio)?
Have I named all files clearly and organised them in folders?
Does my evidence match every requirement in the task?
Have I tested any validation, formulas, or queries and shown the results?
Have I included printouts or PDFs where required?

▶ 3. Assessment Criteria Guide

Understanding Pass, Merit, Distinction

Grade	What It Means	What Assessors Look For
Pass	You have met the basic requirements of the task	The task is completed. Basic skills are shown. Evidence is present but may lack detail or explanation.
Merit	You have gone beyond the basics with good quality work	Good quality output. Some explanation of choices. Consistent formatting. Evidence is clear and well-organised.
Distinction	You have produced excellent work with thorough understanding	High-quality, professional output. Detailed explanations of choices. Thorough testing. Evidence shows deep understanding. Evaluation of your own work.

How to Hit the Higher Grades

From Pass to Merit

Quality: Make your documents look professional (consistent fonts, proper alignment, appropriate colours)
Explanation: Add explanations for your main choices ("I chose a bar chart because...")
Organisation: Name files clearly, organise into folders, include a contents page
Completeness: Address every part of the task, not just most of it
Screenshots: Include clear, annotated screenshots of key steps

From Merit to Distinction

Thorough explanation: Explain ALL your design and technical choices in detail
Evaluation: Reflect on your work - what went well? What would you improve? What did you learn?
Testing: Show comprehensive testing with normal, abnormal, and boundary data
Professionalism: Work looks genuinely professional - could be used in a real workplace
Independence: Show you can solve problems and make decisions without being told exactly what to do
Audience awareness: Explain how your design choices suit the target audience

Key Phrases for Higher Grades

Use phrases like these in your explanations to demonstrate understanding:

"I chose... because..."
"This is suitable for the target audience because..."
"I tested this by... and the result was..."
"If I were to improve this, I would..."
"The advantage of using [feature] is..."
"I used [formatting/validation/formula] to ensure that..."
"This meets the brief because..."

At Distinction level, include a short evaluation at the end of each task. Write 3-5 sentences about what you did well, what was challenging, and what you would do differently next time. This shows reflection and maturity.

▶ 4. Understanding OCN Level 2 Assessment

How OCN Level 2 Is Assessed

OCN (Open College Network) Level 2 qualifications are assessed through a portfolio of evidence. There is no written exam. Instead, you build a collection of work that proves you can do what the course requires.

Your portfolio is assessed by your tutor (the internal assessor) and then checked by an external verifier from OCN to make sure standards are consistent. This means your portfolio needs to be clear enough for someone who has never met you to understand your work.

What Assessors Look For

Assessors mark your work against specific assessment criteria listed in the unit specification. For each criterion, they need to see clear evidence that you can do what is described. They look for:

Completeness: Every assessment criterion must be covered. Missing criteria means missing marks. Check the unit specification and tick off each one.
Authenticity: The work must be your own. Assessors may ask you questions about your work to confirm you understand it.
Quality of evidence: Clear screenshots, well-annotated explanations, and professional-looking output. Blurry screenshots or unexplained work makes it hard to award marks.
Demonstration of skill: You must show you CAN do the task, not just that you know the theory. Practical evidence (screenshots of you doing the task) is essential.
Understanding: At higher levels, you need to explain WHY you made choices, not just WHAT you did.

How to Present Evidence Clearly

Structure Your Portfolio

Create a title page with your name, the unit title, and the date
Include a contents page listing each task and its page number
Organise work by task or unit, with clear dividers or headings
Number your pages so the assessor can reference specific evidence

Present Each Task Effectively

Start each task with a brief introduction stating what the task asks you to do
Include annotated screenshots of each key step, with arrows and labels explaining what you did
Show both the process and the result (Design View AND Datasheet View, formula view AND results view)
Write a short explanation after each screenshot: what you did, why you did it, and how it meets the task requirements
End with a brief evaluation of your work for Distinction-level evidence

Map Your Evidence to Assessment Criteria

The strongest portfolios include a tracking sheet that maps each piece of evidence to the specific assessment criterion it covers. This might be a simple table:

Assessment Criterion	Where to Find Evidence	Status
1.1 Create a document using appropriate software	Task 1, pages 3-5	Complete
1.2 Format text and paragraphs	Task 1, pages 6-8	Complete
2.1 Create a spreadsheet with formulas	Task 2, pages 10-14	Complete

Tips for Achieving Higher Marks

Read the assessment criteria first. Before starting any task, read the exact criteria you need to meet. Highlight the key action words (create, explain, evaluate, justify).
Use the correct terminology. Say "I applied a validation rule" rather than "I made it so you can't type the wrong thing." Using technical language shows understanding.
Be thorough, not brief. A one-line explanation will not score as highly as a detailed paragraph. But avoid waffle - every sentence should add value.
Test everything. If you create a formula, show it working with different values. If you set validation, show it rejecting bad data and accepting good data.
Proofread your portfolio. Spelling and grammar errors in your write-up look careless. Print a draft and read it through before final submission.
Ask for feedback early. Show your tutor a draft of your first task before completing everything. They can tell you if you are on the right track.

Keep a copy of the unit specification beside you as you work. After completing each task, go through the criteria one by one and check you have evidence for every single one. This is the single most effective way to maximise your grade.

Networking Fundamentals // How Computers Connect & Communicate

▶ 1. What is a Computer Network?

Definition

A computer network is two or more devices connected together so they can share data, resources (like printers), and communicate with each other. Networks can be as small as two laptops connected by a cable, or as large as the internet connecting billions of devices worldwide.

Why Do We Use Networks?

File sharing: Send documents, photos, and data between computers without USB sticks
Resource sharing: Multiple users can share one printer, one internet connection, or one database
Communication: Email, instant messaging, video calls, and collaboration tools
Centralised storage: Files stored on a server can be accessed from any device on the network
Cost savings: Share expensive hardware and software licences instead of buying one per computer
Centralised backup: Back up all data from one central location

Types of Network by Size

Type	Full Name	Size / Range	Example
LAN	Local Area Network	Small area - one building or site	Your school network, home Wi-Fi, office network
WAN	Wide Area Network	Large geographical area - cities, countries, worldwide	The internet, a company connecting offices in London and New York
MAN	Metropolitan Area Network	A city or large campus	A university with multiple campuses, a city council connecting all buildings
PAN	Personal Area Network	Very small - around one person	Bluetooth connecting your phone to headphones or a smartwatch

If asked to explain the difference between LAN and WAN, always mention the geographic size AND give a real-world example. For example: "A LAN covers a small area like a single school building, while a WAN covers a large area and can span countries - the internet is the largest WAN."

▶ 2. Network Topologies

What is a Topology?

A network topology is the layout or arrangement of how devices (called nodes) are connected together in a network. Think of it as the "shape" of the network.

Star Topology

All devices connect to a central hub or switch. This is the most common topology in modern networks.

Advantages	Disadvantages
If one cable fails, only that device is affected - the rest of the network keeps working	If the central hub/switch fails, the entire network goes down
Easy to add new devices - just plug into the hub	Requires more cable than bus topology (one cable per device to the hub)
Easy to find and fix faults	The central device (hub/switch) can be expensive
Good performance - no data collisions between devices	Performance depends on the capacity of the central device

Bus Topology

All devices connect to a single main cable (called the backbone). Data travels along the cable in both directions. Each end has a terminator to stop signals bouncing back.

Advantages	Disadvantages
Cheap and easy to set up - uses less cable	If the main cable breaks, the entire network fails
Works well for small networks	Difficult to find where a fault is
Easy to add new devices to the backbone	Performance slows down as more devices are added (data collisions)
No central device needed	Not secure - all devices can see all data on the cable

Ring Topology

Each device connects to exactly two other devices, forming a closed loop (ring). Data travels in one direction around the ring.

Advantages	Disadvantages
Data flows in one direction, reducing collisions	If one device or cable fails, the whole network can go down
Every device has equal access to the network	Difficult to add new devices (the ring must be broken)
Performs well under heavy traffic	Slower than star - data must pass through every device to reach its destination

Mesh Topology

Every device is connected to every other device. There are multiple paths for data to travel.

Advantages	Disadvantages
Very reliable - if one connection fails, data takes another route	Very expensive - lots of cables and network ports needed
No single point of failure	Complex to set up and manage
Good performance - multiple paths reduce congestion	Impractical for large networks with many devices

Students often confuse topology with the physical cables. A topology is the LOGICAL layout - how data flows. The physical wiring might look different from the logical topology. For example, a star topology physically has cables going to a central point, but logically data goes from device to hub to device.

▶ 3. Network Hardware

Key Network Devices

Device	What It Does	Key Facts
Router	Connects different networks together and directs data between them	Your home router connects your LAN to the internet (WAN). It finds the best path for data to travel.
Switch	Connects devices within the same network and sends data only to the device that needs it	Smarter than a hub - reads the destination address and sends data to that specific device only.
Hub	Connects devices but sends data to ALL connected devices, not just the intended one	Old technology, mostly replaced by switches. Wasteful because every device receives every message.
Modem	Converts digital data (from your computer) to analogue signals (for phone/cable lines) and back	MOdulator-DEModulator. Needed to connect to broadband internet through telephone or cable lines.
NIC	Network Interface Card - the hardware inside your computer that lets it connect to a network	Can be wired (Ethernet port) or wireless (Wi-Fi card). Every NIC has a unique MAC address.
WAP	Wireless Access Point - creates a Wi-Fi network that wireless devices can connect to	Often built into home routers. Businesses use multiple WAPs to cover large areas.

Wired vs Wireless Connections

Feature	Wired (Ethernet)	Wireless (Wi-Fi)
Speed	Very fast and consistent (up to 10 Gbps)	Slower and varies with distance/obstacles
Reliability	Very reliable - not affected by interference	Can be affected by walls, other devices, weather
Security	More secure - someone needs physical access to the cable	Less secure - signals can be intercepted from outside
Mobility	Devices are fixed in place by cables	Devices can move freely within range
Cost	More expensive to install (cables, ports in walls)	Cheaper to set up, just need a WAP
Common use	Offices, servers, gaming PCs	Phones, laptops, tablets, smart home devices

Wi-Fi Standards

Standard	Also Called	Max Speed	Notes
802.11n	Wi-Fi 4	600 Mbps	Still common in older devices
802.11ac	Wi-Fi 5	3.5 Gbps	Most common in current home networks
802.11ax	Wi-Fi 6	9.6 Gbps	Latest standard, better for many devices at once

When explaining network hardware in your portfolio, always say what the device does AND give a real-world example. For instance: "A switch connects devices on the same network. In our school, the switch in the IT room connects all 30 classroom PCs to the school server."

▶ 4. Client-Server vs Peer-to-Peer Networks

Two Ways to Organise a Network

Client-Server Network

One or more powerful computers called servers provide services (files, printing, email, websites) to other computers called clients. The server is in charge.

Used in schools, businesses, and the internet
Centralised file storage, user accounts, and security
An administrator manages the server and controls access
If the server goes down, clients lose access to shared resources

Peer-to-Peer Network (P2P)

All computers are equal - there is no central server. Each computer can share its own files and resources directly with others.

Used in small offices, homes, and file-sharing applications
Each user manages their own computer and decides what to share
Simple and cheap to set up - no server needed
If one computer goes down, the others still work

Feature	Client-Server	Peer-to-Peer
Central server	Yes - one or more dedicated servers	No - all computers are equal
Cost	Expensive (server hardware, software, administrator)	Cheap (no server needed)
Security	Strong - managed centrally by administrator	Weak - each user manages their own
Backups	Centralised and automatic	Each user must back up their own files
Scalability	Good - can add many clients	Poor - slows down with too many devices
Best for	Schools, businesses, organisations	Home networks, small offices (under 10 PCs)

A common exam/portfolio question is to recommend a network type for a scenario. A small office with 5 PCs would suit peer-to-peer (cheap, simple). A school with 200 PCs needs client-server (centralised control, security, backups).

▶ 5. Bandwidth, Latency & How Data Travels

Key Terms

Term	Meaning	Analogy
Bandwidth	The maximum amount of data that can be transferred in a given time. Measured in Mbps (megabits per second) or Gbps (gigabits per second).	The width of a motorway - more lanes means more cars can travel at once
Latency	The delay between sending data and it arriving at its destination. Measured in milliseconds (ms).	The time it takes one car to drive from A to B - even on a wide motorway, the journey still takes time
Throughput	The actual amount of data successfully transferred per second (usually less than bandwidth due to overhead)	The actual number of cars that make it through, which is less than the maximum because of traffic jams

How Data Travels Across the Internet

When you send data across the internet (e.g. loading a web page), it does not travel as one big chunk. Instead:

Data is broken into packets - small chunks of data, each with a header saying where it came from and where it is going
Packets travel independently - they may take different routes across the internet
Routers direct the packets - each router reads the destination address and forwards the packet to the next router on the best path
Packets are reassembled - when all packets arrive at the destination, they are put back together in the correct order

This process is called packet switching. It is efficient because if one route is busy or broken, packets can take a different path.

What Affects Network Performance?

Number of users: More people using the network means less bandwidth per person
Type of connection: Fibre optic is faster than copper cable, which is faster than wireless
Distance: Signals weaken over long distances (especially wireless)
Interference: Other wireless devices, walls, and microwaves can disrupt Wi-Fi
Hardware quality: Old routers and switches are slower than modern ones
Network congestion: Too much data on the network at once causes slowdowns

Students confuse bandwidth and speed. Bandwidth is the CAPACITY (how much data CAN be sent), not the actual speed. A 100 Mbps connection will not always transfer at 100 Mbps - congestion, distance, and hardware reduce the actual throughput.

Network Protocols & Services // The Rules That Make Networks Work

▶ 1. TCP/IP - The Language of the Internet

What is a Protocol?

A protocol is a set of rules that devices follow so they can communicate with each other. Without protocols, devices from different manufacturers would not understand each other - like two people speaking different languages.

The TCP/IP Model (4 Layers - Simplified)

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol) is the set of protocols that powers the internet. It has 4 layers, each handling a different job:

Layer	Name	What It Does	Analogy
4 (Top)	Application	The software you use - web browsers, email clients. Protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP	Writing a letter and putting it in an envelope
3	Transport	Breaks data into packets, ensures they arrive correctly. Protocols: TCP, UDP	The postal sorting office - checks everything is accounted for
2	Internet	Adds IP addresses and routes packets across networks. Protocol: IP	Writing the address on the envelope so it reaches the right house
1 (Bottom)	Network Access	Handles the physical transmission - cables, Wi-Fi signals, electrical pulses	The postal van that physically carries the letter

TCP vs UDP

Feature	TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)	UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
Reliability	Reliable - checks that all packets arrive and are in order	Unreliable - sends packets without checking they arrived
Speed	Slower (overhead from checking)	Faster (no checking)
Used for	Web pages, email, file downloads - where accuracy matters	Video streaming, online gaming, voice calls - where speed matters more than perfection

Think of TCP as recorded delivery (guaranteed arrival, slower) and UDP as dropping a postcard in a letterbox (faster, but no guarantee it arrives). Use this analogy in your portfolio to show understanding.

▶ 2. Common Network Protocols

Web Protocols

Protocol	Full Name	What It Does	Key Facts
HTTP	HyperText Transfer Protocol	Transfers web pages from a server to your browser	When you type a URL, your browser uses HTTP to request the page. Data is NOT encrypted.
HTTPS	HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure	Same as HTTP but with encryption	Look for the padlock icon in your browser. All data is encrypted so hackers cannot read it. Essential for banking, shopping, login pages.
FTP	File Transfer Protocol	Uploads and downloads files between computers	Used by web developers to upload website files to a server. Faster than HTTP for large files.

Email Protocols

Protocol	Full Name	Direction	What It Does
SMTP	Simple Mail Transfer Protocol	Sending	Sends emails from your device to the email server, and between servers. Think S for Sending.
POP3	Post Office Protocol v3	Receiving	Downloads emails to your device and usually deletes them from the server. Good for one device only.
IMAP	Internet Message Access Protocol	Receiving	Syncs emails across multiple devices - emails stay on the server. Best for people who check email on phone AND computer.

POP3 vs IMAP - Quick Comparison

Feature	POP3	IMAP
Emails stored	Downloaded to your device, deleted from server	Kept on the server, synced to all devices
Multiple devices	Not ideal - emails only on one device	Perfect - same inbox on phone, laptop, tablet
Storage	Uses your device storage	Uses server storage (cloud)
Offline access	Yes - emails are on your device	Limited - needs internet to fully sync

Students mix up SMTP and POP3/IMAP. Remember: SMTP is for SENDING (S = Send), POP3 and IMAP are for RECEIVING. You need SMTP AND one of POP3/IMAP for email to work both ways.

▶ 3. DNS & IP Addresses

IP Addresses

An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a unique number that identifies every device on a network - like a postal address for your computer.

IPv4 Basics

IPv4 addresses are written as four numbers separated by dots. Each number is between 0 and 255.

Examples:
  192.168.1.1     (common home router address)
  10.0.0.5        (common on school/business networks)
  216.58.210.174  (a Google server)

Static vs Dynamic IP Addresses

Type	What It Means	Used For
Static IP	A fixed IP address that never changes. Manually set by an administrator.	Servers, printers, network devices - things that other devices need to find at the same address every time
Dynamic IP	An IP address that is automatically assigned and can change each time you connect.	Most everyday devices - phones, laptops, home computers

DHCP - Automatic IP Assignment

DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a service that automatically assigns IP addresses to devices when they join a network. Your home router runs DHCP - when your phone connects to Wi-Fi, DHCP gives it an IP address without you doing anything.

MAC Addresses

A MAC address (Media Access Control) is a unique hardware address built into every network device (NIC) at the factory. It never changes.

Format: 6 pairs of hexadecimal digits
Example: 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E

IP Address vs MAC Address

Feature	IP Address	MAC Address
Set by	Software / network (can change)	Hardware / manufacturer (permanent)
Format	4 numbers: 192.168.1.1	6 hex pairs: 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E
Used for	Finding devices across networks (like a postal address)	Identifying the physical device (like a name)
Analogy	Your home address (can change if you move)	Your fingerprint (unique and permanent)

DNS - Domain Name System

DNS is like the phonebook of the internet. It translates human-friendly domain names (like google.com) into IP addresses (like 216.58.210.174) that computers understand.

How DNS Works (Step by Step)

You type www.google.com into your browser
Your computer asks a DNS server: "What is the IP address for google.com?"
The DNS server looks up the name and replies: "It is 216.58.210.174"
Your browser connects to that IP address and loads the website
Your computer caches (remembers) the answer so it does not have to ask again next time

DNS is one of the most commonly asked-about topics. Use the phonebook analogy: "DNS is like a phonebook for the internet - you look up a name (domain) and get a number (IP address). Without DNS, you would need to memorise the IP address of every website."

▶ 4. Packet Switching

How Data is Sent Across Networks

When you send data over a network (an email, a web page request, a file), it is not sent as one big block. Instead, it is broken into small pieces called packets.

What is Inside a Packet?

Part	What It Contains
Header	Source IP address (where it came from), destination IP address (where it is going), packet number (so packets can be reassembled in order), protocol information
Payload	The actual data - a chunk of the file, email text, or web page content
Trailer	Error checking data to make sure the packet was not corrupted during transmission

Why Use Packet Switching?

Efficient: Network resources are shared - no single connection ties up the whole network
Robust: If one route is blocked, packets take a different path
Fair: Many users can share the same network simultaneously
Error recovery: If a packet is lost or corrupted, only that packet needs to be re-sent, not the whole file

Students sometimes say packets always follow the same route. They do NOT - different packets from the same message can take completely different paths across the internet. They are reassembled in the correct order at the destination using the packet numbers.

SQL Fundamentals // Querying & Managing Databases

▶ 1. What is SQL?

Definition

SQL (Structured Query Language) is the standard language used to communicate with databases. It lets you ask questions about data, add new data, change existing data, and delete data.

Why Learn SQL?

SQL is used in virtually every database system (MySQL, SQL Server, SQLite, PostgreSQL, Oracle, Access)
It is the language behind websites, apps, and business systems that store data
Understanding SQL helps you think logically about data
It is a valuable skill in IT careers

Types of SQL Commands

Category	Commands	What They Do
DQL (Data Query Language)	SELECT	Retrieve / read data from a database
DML (Data Manipulation Language)	INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE	Add, change, or remove data
DDL (Data Definition Language)	CREATE TABLE, ALTER TABLE, DROP TABLE	Create or change the structure of tables

SQL commands are not case-sensitive, but it is good practice to write SQL keywords in UPPERCASE (SELECT, FROM, WHERE) and table/column names in lowercase. This makes your code easier to read.

▶ 2. SELECT Statements - Reading Data

Basic SELECT

The SELECT statement is used to retrieve data from a table. It is the most commonly used SQL command.

Select All Columns

SELECT *
FROM Students;

The * means "all columns". This returns every column and every row from the Students table.

Select Specific Columns

SELECT FirstName, LastName, Age
FROM Students;

This returns only the FirstName, LastName, and Age columns - not the entire table.

WHERE Clause - Filtering Results

The WHERE clause filters rows based on a condition. Only rows that match the condition are returned.

Comparison Operators

Operator	Meaning	Example
=	Equal to	`WHERE Age = 16`
<> or !=	Not equal to	`WHERE City <> 'Belfast'`
>	Greater than	`WHERE Mark > 70`
<	Less than	`WHERE Price < 10.00`
>=	Greater than or equal to	`WHERE Age >= 18`
<=	Less than or equal to	`WHERE Salary <= 30000`

LIKE - Pattern Matching

-- Names starting with 'S'
SELECT * FROM Students WHERE LastName LIKE 'S%';

-- Names ending with 'son'
SELECT * FROM Students WHERE LastName LIKE '%son';

-- Names containing 'ar'
SELECT * FROM Students WHERE LastName LIKE '%ar%';

-- Names with exactly 5 characters
SELECT * FROM Students WHERE LastName LIKE '_____';

% matches any number of characters. _ matches exactly one character.

IN - Matching a List

SELECT * FROM Students
WHERE City IN ('Belfast', 'Derry', 'Newry');

Returns students in Belfast, Derry, OR Newry. Shorter than writing three separate OR conditions.

BETWEEN - Range of Values

SELECT * FROM Students
WHERE Age BETWEEN 16 AND 18;

Returns students aged 16, 17, or 18 (inclusive of both ends).

AND, OR, NOT - Combining Conditions

-- Both conditions must be true
SELECT * FROM Students
WHERE Age >= 16 AND City = 'Belfast';

-- Either condition can be true
SELECT * FROM Students
WHERE City = 'Belfast' OR City = 'Derry';

-- Reverses the condition
SELECT * FROM Students
WHERE NOT City = 'Belfast';

Text values in SQL must be wrapped in single quotes: WHERE City = 'Belfast'. Numbers do NOT need quotes: WHERE Age = 16. Forgetting the quotes around text is a very common error.

▶ 3. ORDER BY & Aggregate Functions

ORDER BY - Sorting Results

The ORDER BY clause sorts the results. By default it sorts in ascending order (A-Z, 0-9).

-- Sort by last name A to Z (ascending - default)
SELECT * FROM Students ORDER BY LastName ASC;

-- Sort by age highest to lowest (descending)
SELECT * FROM Students ORDER BY Age DESC;

-- Sort by multiple columns
SELECT * FROM Students ORDER BY City ASC, LastName ASC;

Keyword	Meaning	Example
ASC	Ascending (A-Z, 0-9, oldest-newest). This is the default.	ORDER BY LastName ASC
DESC	Descending (Z-A, 9-0, newest-oldest)	ORDER BY Age DESC

Aggregate Functions - Summarising Data

Aggregate functions perform calculations on a set of values and return a single result.

Function	What It Does	Example	Result
COUNT()	Counts the number of rows	`SELECT COUNT(*) FROM Students;`	Returns the total number of students
SUM()	Adds up all values in a column	`SELECT SUM(Price) FROM Orders;`	Returns the total of all order prices
AVG()	Calculates the average (mean)	`SELECT AVG(Mark) FROM Results;`	Returns the average mark
MAX()	Finds the highest value	`SELECT MAX(Mark) FROM Results;`	Returns the highest mark
MIN()	Finds the lowest value	`SELECT MIN(Price) FROM Products;`	Returns the cheapest price

GROUP BY - Grouping Results

GROUP BY groups rows that have the same value in a column, so you can use aggregate functions on each group.

-- Count how many students in each city
SELECT City, COUNT(*) AS NumberOfStudents
FROM Students
GROUP BY City;

-- Average mark per subject
SELECT Subject, AVG(Mark) AS AverageMark
FROM Results
GROUP BY Subject;

The AS keyword gives the calculated column a friendly name (alias).

When using GROUP BY, every column in your SELECT must either be in the GROUP BY clause or be inside an aggregate function. For example, SELECT City, COUNT(*) FROM Students GROUP BY City is correct - City is in GROUP BY, COUNT(*) is an aggregate.

▶ 4. INSERT, UPDATE & DELETE - Modifying Data

INSERT INTO - Adding New Data

The INSERT INTO statement adds a new row to a table.

-- Insert a new student (specifying columns)
INSERT INTO Students (FirstName, LastName, Age, City)
VALUES ('Emma', 'Wilson', 17, 'Belfast');

-- Insert with all columns (must match table order)
INSERT INTO Students
VALUES (101, 'Emma', 'Wilson', 17, 'Belfast');

UPDATE - Changing Existing Data

The UPDATE statement changes data that already exists in a table.

-- Change one student's city
UPDATE Students
SET City = 'Derry'
WHERE StudentID = 101;

-- Change multiple columns at once
UPDATE Students
SET Age = 18, City = 'Newry'
WHERE FirstName = 'Emma' AND LastName = 'Wilson';

-- Increase all prices by 10%
UPDATE Products
SET Price = Price * 1.10;

DANGER: Always use a WHERE clause with UPDATE! Without WHERE, the update applies to EVERY row in the table. Running UPDATE Students SET City = 'Derry' would change EVERY student's city to Derry!

DELETE - Removing Data

The DELETE statement removes rows from a table.

-- Delete one specific student
DELETE FROM Students
WHERE StudentID = 101;

-- Delete all students from Belfast
DELETE FROM Students
WHERE City = 'Belfast';

-- Delete ALL rows (empties the whole table!)
DELETE FROM Students;

DANGER: Always use a WHERE clause with DELETE! Without WHERE, DELETE FROM Students deletes EVERY student from the table. This cannot be undone!

▶ 5. CREATE TABLE - Building Database Tables

Creating a New Table

The CREATE TABLE statement defines a new table with its columns and data types.

CREATE TABLE Students (
    StudentID   INT         PRIMARY KEY,
    FirstName   VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
    LastName    VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
    Age         INT,
    City        VARCHAR(50),
    EnrolDate   DATE
);

Common Data Types

Data Type	What It Stores	Example
INT (Integer)	Whole numbers (no decimals)	Age, StudentID, Quantity
VARCHAR(n)	Text up to n characters	Names, cities, addresses
DECIMAL(p,s)	Numbers with decimal places (p total digits, s after the point)	Price DECIMAL(8,2) stores up to 999999.99
DATE	A date (year, month, day)	DateOfBirth, OrderDate
BOOLEAN	True or False	IsActive, HasPaid
TEXT	Very long text (no size limit)	Comments, descriptions, notes

Constraints

Constraint	What It Does	Example
PRIMARY KEY	Uniquely identifies each row. Cannot be NULL or duplicated.	StudentID INT PRIMARY KEY
NOT NULL	The column must have a value - it cannot be left empty.	LastName VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL
UNIQUE	Every value in the column must be different.	Email VARCHAR(100) UNIQUE
DEFAULT	Sets a default value if none is provided.	City VARCHAR(50) DEFAULT 'Belfast'

When creating tables in your portfolio, always explain your choice of data types. For example: "I used VARCHAR(50) for the name fields because names vary in length, and 50 characters is enough for most names. I used INT for age because ages are always whole numbers."

Cybersecurity // Protecting Systems, Data & People

▶ 1. Types of Cyber Threats

Malware (Malicious Software)

Malware is any software designed to damage, disrupt, or gain unauthorised access to a computer system.

Type	What It Does	How It Spreads
Virus	Attaches itself to a legitimate file or program. When you run the file, the virus activates and copies itself to other files.	Email attachments, infected downloads, USB drives
Worm	Similar to a virus but spreads on its own WITHOUT needing you to open a file. Copies itself across networks automatically.	Network connections, email, security holes in software
Trojan	Disguises itself as useful software but secretly performs harmful actions. Named after the Trojan Horse from Greek mythology.	Fake software downloads, email attachments that look legitimate
Ransomware	Encrypts (locks) all your files and demands a payment (ransom) to unlock them. Even paying does not guarantee you get your files back.	Phishing emails, infected websites, security vulnerabilities
Spyware	Secretly monitors what you do on your computer - keystrokes, websites visited, passwords typed.	Bundled with free software, infected websites
Adware	Displays unwanted advertisements, pop-ups, and redirects your browser. Annoying rather than destructive.	Bundled with free software, browser extensions

Social Engineering Attacks

Social engineering is when attackers manipulate PEOPLE rather than technology. They trick you into giving away sensitive information.

Attack	How It Works	Example
Phishing	Fake emails or messages pretending to be from a trusted source, tricking you into clicking a link or entering your details	An email that looks like it is from your bank asking you to "verify your account" by clicking a link to a fake website
Spear phishing	Targeted phishing aimed at a specific person, using personal details to look more convincing	"Hi Emma, your manager John asked me to send you this invoice" - the attacker researched names from LinkedIn
Pretexting	The attacker creates a fake scenario to gain your trust and get information	Someone phones pretending to be from IT support: "We need your password to fix an issue on your account"
Baiting	Leaving infected USB drives or downloads where people will find them	A USB stick labelled "Salary Information" left in a car park - someone plugs it in out of curiosity
Shoulder surfing	Watching someone type their password or PIN by looking over their shoulder	Someone watching you enter your bank PIN at a cash machine

Students often only mention viruses when asked about threats. There are MANY types of threat. Make sure you can describe at least 3-4 different types of malware AND at least 2 social engineering attacks.

▶ 2. Firewalls & Encryption

Firewalls

A firewall is a security system that monitors and controls network traffic based on a set of rules. It acts as a barrier between a trusted network (your computer/office) and an untrusted network (the internet).

What Firewalls Do

Block unauthorised incoming connections (hackers trying to get in)
Block outgoing connections to dangerous websites
Allow legitimate traffic through (web browsing, email)
Log all connection attempts for monitoring

Types of Firewall

Type	What It Is	Example
Software firewall	A program running on your computer. Protects that one device.	Windows Defender Firewall, built into Windows
Hardware firewall	A physical device that sits between your network and the internet. Protects the whole network.	Built into most home routers. Businesses use dedicated firewall appliances.

Encryption

Encryption is the process of scrambling data so that only someone with the correct key can read it. Even if a hacker intercepts the data, they cannot understand it without the key.

Symmetric vs Asymmetric Encryption

Feature	Symmetric Encryption	Asymmetric Encryption
Keys	ONE key to encrypt AND decrypt (shared secret)	TWO keys: a public key (anyone can have) and a private key (kept secret)
Speed	Fast	Slower (more complex maths)
Problem	How do you safely share the key? If someone intercepts the key, they can decrypt everything.	Solves the key-sharing problem - the public key is freely shared, only the private key decrypts.
Analogy	A padlock where both people have a copy of the same key	A letterbox - anyone can post a letter in (public key), but only you have the key to open it (private key)
Used for	Encrypting stored files, database encryption	HTTPS, email encryption, digital signatures

Why HTTPS Matters

HTTPS uses encryption (TLS/SSL) to protect data sent between your browser and a website. Without it:

Passwords, credit card numbers, and personal data are sent as plain text
Anyone on the same network (e.g. public Wi-Fi) could read your data
Attackers could modify data in transit (e.g. change a bank transfer amount)

Always check for the padlock icon in your browser address bar before entering sensitive information.

When explaining encryption, always say what it DOES (scrambles data), WHY it is needed (to prevent unauthorised access), and give an EXAMPLE (HTTPS protects bank login details). The three-part answer scores higher marks.

▶ 3. Authentication Methods

What is Authentication?

Authentication is the process of proving you are who you say you are. It answers the question: "Are you really this person?"

Three Factors of Authentication

Factor	Meaning	Examples
Something you know	Knowledge - information only you should know	Passwords, PINs, security questions, patterns
Something you have	Possession - a physical item you carry	Phone (for SMS codes), smart card, security key (YubiKey), bank card
Something you are	Biometrics - physical characteristics unique to you	Fingerprint, face recognition, iris scan, voice recognition

Two-Factor Authentication (2FA)

2FA requires TWO different factors to log in. Even if someone steals your password, they still cannot get in without the second factor.

How 2FA Works (Example: Logging into Online Banking)

You enter your username and password (something you know)
The bank sends a 6-digit code to your phone (something you have)
You enter the code - only then are you logged in

Strong Password Rules

At least 12 characters long (longer is better)
Mix of uppercase, lowercase, numbers, and symbols
NOT a dictionary word, name, or birthday
Different for every account (use a password manager)
Never share your password with anyone

Biometric Authentication - Pros and Cons

Advantages	Disadvantages
Cannot be forgotten (unlike passwords)	If compromised, you cannot change your fingerprint
Cannot be easily shared or stolen	Can fail (wet fingers, injuries, lighting)
Quick and convenient	Equipment can be expensive
Unique to each individual	Privacy concerns about storing biometric data

Students often write that biometrics are "impossible to hack". They are NOT. Fingerprints can be copied, face recognition can be fooled by photos (though modern systems are better). Always say biometrics are "more difficult to bypass" rather than "impossible to hack".

▶ 4. Safe Online Practices & Backup Strategies

Staying Safe Online

Keep software updated: Updates patch security holes that hackers exploit. Enable automatic updates.
Use anti-virus software: Scans for and removes malware. Keep it updated.
Be cautious with emails: Do not click links or open attachments from unknown senders. Check the sender's actual email address.
Use strong, unique passwords: Different password for every account. Use a password manager.
Enable 2FA: Turn on two-factor authentication wherever it is available.
Be careful on public Wi-Fi: Do not access banking or enter passwords on public networks without a VPN.
Check for HTTPS: Look for the padlock icon before entering any personal information.
Think before you share: Personal information posted online can be used for social engineering.
Lock your devices: Use a PIN, password, or biometric lock on all devices.

Backup Strategies

A backup is a copy of your data stored separately, so you can recover it if the original is lost, damaged, or encrypted by ransomware.

The 3-2-1 Backup Rule

Rule	What It Means	Example
3 copies of your data	The original plus two backups	Files on your PC + external hard drive + cloud backup
2 different types of storage	Do not keep all copies on the same type of media	One on a hard drive, one in the cloud (not both on USB sticks)
1 copy stored offsite	Keep one backup in a different physical location	Cloud storage (e.g. Google Drive) or a hard drive kept at a relative's house

The 3-2-1 rule protects against hardware failure, theft, fire, flood, and ransomware.

Physical Security Measures

Cybersecurity is not just digital. Physical security protects the hardware and the building:

Locked doors and server rooms: Only authorised staff can access sensitive equipment
CCTV cameras: Monitor and record who enters secure areas
Security guards and sign-in systems: Control who enters the building
Cable locks: Physically secure laptops and equipment to desks
Shredding documents: Destroy sensitive paper documents rather than just binning them
Screen privacy filters: Prevent shoulder surfing on laptops in public
Biometric door locks: Fingerprint or card access to restricted areas

When discussing security in your portfolio, cover BOTH digital measures (encryption, firewalls, passwords) AND physical measures (locked rooms, CCTV). Many students forget physical security entirely.

▶ 5. Cybersecurity Careers Overview

Career Paths in Cybersecurity

Cybersecurity is one of the fastest-growing career fields. There is a huge global shortage of cybersecurity professionals, meaning excellent job prospects and good salaries.

Role	What They Do	Skills Needed
Security Analyst	Monitors networks for threats, investigates security incidents, and recommends improvements	Analytical thinking, knowledge of networking, attention to detail
Penetration Tester	Legally tries to hack into systems to find vulnerabilities before criminals do (also called "ethical hacker")	Programming, networking, creative problem-solving
Security Engineer	Designs and builds secure systems, networks, and applications	System administration, networking, encryption knowledge
Incident Responder	Responds when a security breach happens - contains the damage, investigates, and helps recover	Quick thinking, forensic skills, communication
Security Consultant	Advises organisations on how to improve their security posture	Broad IT knowledge, communication, business understanding

Getting Started

Qualifications: A-Levels or BTECs in IT/Computing, then a degree in Cybersecurity, Computer Science, or related field
Certifications: CompTIA Security+, Certified Ethical Hacker (CEH), CISSP
Practice: Free platforms like TryHackMe, Hack The Box, and CyberStart let you practise safely
Skills to develop: Networking, Linux, programming (Python), problem-solving, communication

If asked about IT careers in your portfolio, cybersecurity is a strong choice to write about because it is in demand, well-paid, and relevant to everyone. Mention the skills shortage and the variety of roles available.

Cloud Computing // Data & Services in the Cloud

▶ 1. What is Cloud Computing?

Definition

Cloud computing means using servers, storage, software, and services over the internet instead of on your own computer or local network. The "cloud" is just someone else's computer in a data centre somewhere.

Cloud vs Local Storage

Feature	Local Storage	Cloud Storage
Where data is stored	On your device (hard drive, USB, school server)	On remote servers accessed via the internet
Access	Only from that specific device	From any device with an internet connection
Internet needed?	No - files are right there	Yes - need internet to access files
Risk of loss	If device is lost/broken/stolen, data may be gone	Data survives even if your device is lost (backed up on servers)
Storage space	Limited to your device capacity	Can buy more storage easily
Cost	One-off cost for hardware	Often subscription-based (monthly/yearly)
Speed	Very fast (data is local)	Depends on internet speed

Advantages of Cloud Computing

Access anywhere: Work on your files from school, home, or a phone
Automatic backups: Cloud providers back up your data so you do not lose it
Collaboration: Multiple people can work on the same document at the same time
No installation needed: Software runs in the browser - no need to install or update
Scalable: Need more storage? Just upgrade your plan
Cost-effective: No need to buy and maintain expensive servers

Disadvantages of Cloud Computing

Requires internet: No internet means no access to your files or software
Privacy concerns: Your data is stored on someone else's servers - you must trust the provider
Ongoing cost: Monthly or yearly subscriptions can add up over time
Less control: The provider decides on updates, features, and pricing
Security risks: If the provider is hacked, your data could be exposed
Speed: Large files can be slow to upload/download depending on your internet connection

When comparing cloud and local storage, always give advantages AND disadvantages of BOTH. A balanced answer that discusses both sides scores higher than one that only praises or criticises cloud computing.

▶ 2. Common Cloud Services

Cloud Storage Services

Service	Provider	Free Storage	Key Features
Google Drive	Google	15 GB	Integrates with Google Docs, Sheets, Slides. Works in any browser. Popular in education.
OneDrive	Microsoft	5 GB	Built into Windows. Integrates with Microsoft 365 (Word, Excel, PowerPoint). Used in many schools and businesses.
Dropbox	Dropbox Inc.	2 GB	Simple file sharing and syncing. Works across all platforms. Good for sharing large files.
iCloud	Apple	5 GB	Built into iPhones, iPads, and Macs. Syncs photos, documents, and device backups.

Cloud Productivity Suites

Suite	Applications	Cloud Features
Microsoft 365	Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Outlook, Teams	Online versions work in the browser. Files saved to OneDrive. Real-time co-authoring. Used widely in businesses.
Google Workspace	Docs, Sheets, Slides, Gmail, Meet	Fully cloud-based - works entirely in the browser. No software to install. Files saved to Google Drive.

If your portfolio asks you to discuss cloud services, compare at least two services and explain which is better for a specific scenario. For example: "Google Workspace is better for a school because it is free for education, works in any browser, and does not require installing software."

▶ 3. SaaS - Software as a Service

What is SaaS?

SaaS (Software as a Service) means using software over the internet through your browser, rather than installing it on your computer. You do not buy the software outright - you pay a subscription or use it for free.

How SaaS Works

The software runs on the provider's servers (in the cloud)
You access it through a web browser - nothing to download or install
Updates happen automatically - you always have the latest version
Your data is stored in the cloud, not on your device

Examples of SaaS

SaaS Application	What It Does	Replaces
Google Docs	Word processing in the browser	Microsoft Word (installed)
Microsoft 365 Online	Office apps in the browser	Office installed on your PC
Gmail / Outlook.com	Email in the browser	Desktop email clients
Spotify	Music streaming	Buying and downloading music files
Netflix	Video streaming	Buying DVDs or downloading videos
Canva	Graphic design in the browser	Photoshop or Publisher (installed)

Advantages of SaaS

No installation or setup - just open a browser and log in
Works on any device (PC, Mac, Chromebook, tablet, phone)
Always up to date - no manual updates needed
Lower upfront cost (subscription vs buying software)
Easy collaboration - multiple users can work together

Disadvantages of SaaS

Requires a reliable internet connection
Subscription costs add up over years (may cost more long-term)
Less control over your data - stored on provider's servers
May not have all features of the full installed version
If the provider shuts down, you could lose access

Students sometimes think SaaS means "free software". It does NOT - many SaaS products charge monthly subscriptions (e.g. Microsoft 365 costs around 6-10 GBP per month). Some offer free tiers with limited features, but SaaS is a delivery model, not a pricing model.

▶ 4. Data Privacy & Collaboration in the Cloud

Data Privacy Concerns

When you store data in the cloud, you are trusting a third-party company to keep it safe and private. Key concerns include:

Who can access your data? The cloud provider's employees may have access. Government agencies may request access under certain laws.
Where is your data stored? Data might be stored in a different country, subject to different laws.
What happens if the provider is hacked? Major data breaches have exposed millions of people's files.
What does the provider do with your data? Some free services scan your data to target advertising.
What if the provider goes out of business? You could lose access to your data.

GDPR and Data Protection

The GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation) is UK/EU law that gives people rights over their personal data. Cloud providers must:

Tell you what data they collect and why
Keep your data secure
Only keep data as long as needed
Delete your data if you request it ("right to be forgotten")
Report data breaches within 72 hours

Collaboration Tools

One of the biggest benefits of cloud computing is real-time collaboration - multiple people working on the same document at the same time.

Tool	Type	Key Collaboration Features
Google Docs/Sheets	Document editing	Multiple users edit simultaneously. See others' cursors in real time. Comment and suggest changes. Version history to undo changes.
Microsoft Teams	Communication hub	Chat, video calls, screen sharing, file sharing. Channels for different topics. Integrates with Office apps.
SharePoint	Document management	Shared team files, version control, permission management. Used in businesses for intranets.
Trello / Planner	Task management	Assign tasks to team members, set deadlines, track progress. Kanban boards for visual workflow.

Sharing Permissions

Permission Level	What The Person Can Do	When to Use
Viewer	Can see the file but cannot change anything	Sharing a report for review, read-only access
Commenter	Can see the file and add comments but cannot change content	Getting feedback without risking changes
Editor	Can see and change the file	Team members who need to contribute content
Owner	Full control - can edit, share, and delete	The person responsible for the file

When discussing collaboration tools in your portfolio, always explain HOW the tool helps (e.g. "Google Docs allows real-time co-authoring, so my team can all work on the same report simultaneously without emailing different versions back and forth"). Link the tool to a specific benefit.